산치
Sanchi| 산치 | |
|---|---|
 하원의원 라이센구 산치의 대탑. | |
  산치 스탑 산치 스탑  산치 스탑 산치 스투파 (마디아 프라데시 주) | |
| 일반 정보 | |
| 유형 | 스탑 및 주변 건물 |
| 건축 양식 | 불교, 마우리아어 |
| 위치 | 인도 마디야프라데시 주 라이젠 구 산치 타운 |
| 시구정촌 | 라이센 구 산치 |
| 나라 |  인도 |
| 공사 시작 | 기원전 3세기 |
| 높이 | 16.46 m (54.0 피트) (그레이트 스탑 돔) |
| 치수 | |
| 직경 | 36.6 m (120 피트) (그레이트 스투파 돔) |
| 공식 명칭 | 산치 불전 |
| 기준 | 문화: i, ii, iii, iv, vi |
| 언급 | 524 |
| 비문 | 1989년(13차 세션) |
좌표: 23°28°45°N 77°4인도 마디프라데시주 라이젠구 산치타운 언덕 꼭대기에 있는 대탑으로 한 불교단지다라이젠 마을에서 약 23km 떨어져 있으며, 지구본부는 마디아프라데시 주의 주도 보팔에서 북동쪽으로 46km(29mi) 떨어져 있다.
산치의 대탑은 인도에서 가장 오래된 석조 건축물 중 하나로 인도 [1]건축의 중요한 기념물이다.원래는 기원전 3세기 마우리아 천황 아소카 대왕의 사명을 받았다.그것의 핵은 부처의 유물 위에 세워진 단순한 반구형 벽돌 구조였다.그것은 높은 지위를 상징하는 파라솔 같은 건축물인 '차트라'에 의해 왕관을 씌웠는데, 이것은 유물을 기리고 보호하려는 의도였다.이 탑의 원래 건축 작업은 아소카가 감독했는데, 그의 아내 데비는 인근 비디샤의 상인의 딸이었다.산치는 그녀의 출생지이자 그녀와 아소카의 결혼식 장소이기도 했다.기원전 1세기에는 정교하게 조각된 4개의 토라나와 건물 전체를 둘러싼 난간이 추가되었다.마우리아 시대에 지어진 산치 스탑은 벽돌로 만들어졌다.그 복합 재료는 11세기까지 번성했다.
보즈푸르( ( ()는 산치에서 몇 마일 이내에 많은 부도가 있는 지역의 중심지로, 사타라(9田, 사리푸트라, 마하모그갈라나 등 40개의 부도, 현재 새로운 비에 안치되어 있는 사리푸트라, 마하모그갈라나 등 60개의 부도가 요새화되어 있다.nd 산치 17km SE와 소나리(산치 [2][3]10km SW).남쪽으로 약 100km 떨어진 곳에 사루마루가 있다.바르후트는 북동쪽으로 300km 떨어져 있다.
산치 스투파는 인도 문화유산에 [4]대한 중요성을 나타내기 위해 인도 화폐 200엔의 뒷면에 그려져 있다.
운송
가장 가까운 공항은 보팔입니다.보팔과 라니 캄라파티에서 산치 역까지 열차를 이용할 수 있습니다.버스는 보팔과 비디샤에서 이용할 수 있다.
개요
오늘날 산치 유적들은 마우리아 제국 시대(기원전 3세기)에서 굽타 제국 시대(기원전 5세기)에서 [5]기원후 12세기 경에 이르는 일련의 불교 기념물로 구성되어 있다.그것은 아마도 인도에서 [5]가장 잘 보존된 불교 기념물 그룹일 것이다.가장 오래되고 또한 가장 큰 기념물은 처음에 마우리아인들이 세운 아소카의 [5]기둥 중 하나로 장식된 스투파 1호라고도 불리는 대탑이다.그 후 수세기 동안, 특히 슝가스와 사타바하나 시대에는 대탑이 확대되고 대문과 난간으로 장식되었으며, 인근에 작은 부도들, 특히 2호 부도, [5]3호 부도들이 세워졌다.
동시에, 굽타 제국 시대와 이후까지 다양한 사원 건물들이 지어졌다.산치는 불교의 초기 단계와 최초의 예술적 표현에서부터 [5]대륙의 종교의 쇠퇴에 이르기까지 고대 인도 건축과 고대 불교 건축의 진화를 모두 망라하고 있다.
대탑(Stupa No.1)은 기원전 3세기에 시작되었다
스투파 2호
스투파 3호
17호 사찰
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마우리아 시대 (기원전 3세기)
산치의 '대탑'은 가장 오래된 건물로 기원전 [6]3세기 마우리아 제국의 아소카 천황의 임명을 받았다.그것의 핵은 [6]부처의 유물 위에 세워진 반구 모양의 벽돌 구조물로, 그것의 밑부분을 감싸고 있는 높이 솟은 테라스와 돌우산이 있고, 정상에는 높은 [7][8]지위를 상징하는 파라솔 모양의 구조물인 차트라(,ra)가 있다.원래 스투파는 현재 스투파의 절반 정도의 지름밖에 되지 않았는데, 이는 선가족이 확대한 결과입니다.그것은 [7]현재 그것을 덮고 있는 돌들과 대조적으로 벽돌로 덮여 있었다.
스리랑카의 불교 연대기인 마하밤사에 따르면 아쇼카는 산치 지역과 밀접하게 연결되어 있었다.그가 후계자로 우자인에 총독으로 있을 때 그는 비디샤(산치에서 10km)에 들렀고 그곳에서 현지 은행가의 딸과 결혼했다고 한다.그녀는 데비라고 불렸고 나중에 아쇼카에게 우제니야와 마헨드라, 그리고 딸 상가미타를 주었다.아소카의 즉위 후, 마헨드라는 천황의 후원으로 스리랑카에 파견된 불교 사절단을 이끌고, 섬으로 떠나기 전에 산치로 생각되는 비디사 근처의 체티야기리에 있는 어머니를 방문했다.그는 그곳에 호화로운 비하라나 수도원에 묵었는데, 그녀가 직접 [9]세웠다고 한다.
아소카 기둥
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아소카의 기둥 중 하나인 정교하게 다듬어진 사암 기둥도 토라나 정문 측면에 세워져 있었다.기둥의 밑부분이 아직 서 있다.기둥의 윗부분은 근처 산치 고고학 박물관에 있습니다.수도는 4마리의 사자로 구성되어 있으며, 이 사자는 아마도 법의 [12]수레바퀴를 지탱하고 있을 것으로 생각되며, 산치 부조 중 후술의 삽화로도 알 수 있다.이 기둥에는 아쇼칸(교령)[12]과 굽타 [6]시대의 장식품인 산카리피에 새겨진 글귀가 새겨져 있다.아쇼칸 비문은 초기 브라흐미 문자로 새겨져 있다.불행하게도 그것은 많이 손상되었지만, 여기에 포함된 명령어는 사르나트 칙령과 카우삼비 칙령에 기록된 것과 같은 것으로 보이며, 이 칙령들은 함께 아쇼카의 "교리 칙령"의 세 가지 알려진 예를 형성한다.그것은 불교상가의 분열에 대한 벌칙과 관련이 있다.
승려와 수녀 모두에게 길이 정해져 있습니다달과 태양이 영속하는 한 상하의 분열을 일으킬 수도승이나 수녀는 흰 예복을 입고 따로 살도록 강요받을 것이다.내 욕망이 뭐지?상하가 단결하여 오래오래 버틸 수 있도록.
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이 기둥은 높이가 약 42피트이고 둥글고 약간 가늘어지는 일체형 축으로 구성되어 있으며, 주판을 얹은 종모양과 4마리의 사자 관식을 등지고, 전체적으로 정교하게 다듬어져 위에서 아래로 놀라운 광택을 낸다.주판은 부처님 제자들의 무리를 상징하는 거위 한 쌍으로 분리된 네 개의 불꽃 팔멧 무늬로 장식되어 있다.정상에서 온 사자들은 비록 지금은 상당히 외형이 나빠졌지만,[14] 여전히 조각가들의 기술을 증명하고 있다.
기둥을 조각한 사암은 수백 마일 떨어진 추나르의 채석장에서 나왔는데, 이는 건축업자들이 40피트 길이와 무게가 거의 톤에 달하는 돌 덩어리를 운반할 수 있었다는 것을 암시한다.그들은 아마도 갠지스, 점나,[14] 벳와 강까지 장마철에 뗏목을 이용하여 수상 교통을 이용했을 것이다.
적어도 부분적으로 기원전 3세기까지 거슬러 올라가는 또 다른 건축물은 [15]소위 템플 40으로 불리는 인도 최초의 독립 사원의 사례 중 하나이다.40번 사원에는 마우리아 시대의 가장 이른 시기인 3개의 다른 시대의 유적이 남아 있어 아마도 대탑의 창건과 동시대의 것으로 보인다.비문에는 [16]아소카의 아버지 빈두사라에 의해 창건되었을 가능성이 있습니다.원래 기원전 3세기 사원은 26.52×14×3.35m의 높은 직사각형 돌기둥 위에 지어졌으며, 동쪽과 서쪽으로 두 개의 계단이 있다.그것은 아마 나무로 만들어진, 거의 죽어버린 홀이었다.그것은 기원전 [17][18]2세기경에 불탔다.
이후, 이 플랫폼은 41.76×27.74미터로 확장되었고, 50개의 기둥(5×10)이 남아 있는 절개식 홀을 세우는 데 재사용되었다.이 기둥들 중 일부는 기원전 2세기의 비문이 새겨져 있다.7~8세기에는 기단 한쪽 구석에 작은 사당이 세워져 기둥을 다시 세워 지금의 위치에 [19][18]놓았습니다.
 기원전 260년경 마우리아스 시대의 아소카 기둥이 있는 대탑의 대략적인 재건. |
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순가 시대 (기원전 2세기)
아쇼카바다나에 근거해, 기원전 2세기 무렵에 스탑이 파괴되었을 가능성이 있는 것으로 추정되고 있는데, 그 중에는 군장으로서 마우리아 제국을 추월한 순가 천황 푸샤미트라 순가의 부흥과 관련된 사건도 있다.푸샤미트라가 원래의 탑을 파괴했을 가능성이 있고 그의 아들 아그니미트라가 그것을 [20]재건했다는 설이 있다.원래 벽돌탑은 순가시대에 돌로 덮여 있었다.
많은 도시가 실제로 그들만의 동전을 발행하고 있고, 불교에 대한 선가의 상대적인 혐오감을 가지고 있는, 다소 분산적이고 단편적인 선가 국가의 성격을 감안할 때, 산치에서의 그 시기의 건축물은 실제로 '선가'라고 불릴 수 없다고 주장하는 저자도 있다.이들은 마우리아 시대와는 대조적으로 왕실 후원의 결과물이 아니며, 산치에서의 봉헌의 대부분은 왕실 [21]후원의 결과라기보다는 사적인 것이거나 집단적인 것이었다.
산치의 순가시대 장식의 양식은 바르훗과 비슷하고, 보드가야의 마하보디 사원의 주변 난간도 비슷하다.
그레이트 스투파 (1호)
이후 숭가시대에는 석판으로 부도를 증축하여 원래 크기의 거의 두 배까지 넓혔다.돔은 꼭대기 근처에 평평하게 만들어졌고 정사각형 난간 안에 세 개의 파라솔이 겹쳐져 있었다.많은 층으로 그것은 법의 수레바퀴인 달마의 상징이었다.돔은 2개의 계단을 통해 접근할 수 있는 둘레를 위한 높은 원형 드럼 위에 설치되었다.지상의 두 번째 돌길은 돌 난간으로 둘러싸여 있었다.스투파 1호 주변의 난간에는 예술적인 양식이 없습니다.이것들은 단지 석판일 뿐이고, 일부 헌정문도 새겨져 있다.이 요소들은 기원전 [22]150년 경, [23]즉 기원전 175~125년으로 추정됩니다.난간은 돌로 만들어졌지만 나무 원형에서 복사한 것으로, 존 마샬이 관찰한 바와 같이 나무와 돌 사이의 이음새가 수직으로 깎이지 않고 자연스럽게 깎이는 것처럼 비스듬히 잘려나갔습니다.브라흐미 문자로 된 기증자들의 짧은 기록 외에도 굽타 [24]시대에 추가된 두 개의 난간에는 이후에 새겨진 두 개의 글이 있다.계단 난간에는 일부 부조가 있지만, 아마도 스투파 [25]2호보다 약간 늦은 것으로 보이며,[23] 기원전 125-100년 전으로 거슬러 올라간다.일부 저자들은 이러한 부조가 다소 조잡하고 명확한 불교적 함의가 없는 가장 오래된 부조이며, 심지어 산치 스탑 [23]2호 부조보다 약간 더 오래된 부조라고 생각한다.
| 그레이트 스투파 (1호)순가시대의 건축물 및 장식 (기원전 2세기) | |
 그레이트 스투파 (Stupa 확장 및 난간만 Shunga입니다. 장식되지 않은 지상 난간은 [22]대략 기원전 150년으로 거슬러 올라간다.계단 난간 위에 있는 구호품들. |
계단 난간 릴리프 |
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스탑 2호: 최초의 불교 부조
숭가 시대에 임관된 것으로 보이는 탑은 대탑의 지반 난간과 석재를 이은 제2부탑과 제3부탑(다만, 다음 사타바하나 시대의 매우 장식된 문과는 아니다)이다.이 부조물들은 기원전 115년 경에 메달과 기둥 [27]조각에 기원전 80년 경으로 거슬러 올라가며, 바르후트 부조물보다 약간 먼저 만들어졌으며,[22][27] 일부는 기원후 1세기까지 거슬러 올라갑니다.
2호 스탑은 대탑보다 늦게 세워졌지만 아마도 가장 오래된 건축장식을 [25]전시하고 있을 것이다.처음으로 명확하게 불교적인 주제를 표현했는데, 특히 부처의 삶에서 네 가지 사건인 예수탄생, 계몽, 첫 번째 설교, 그리고 [30]죽음이다.
2호 스탑의 장식은 현존하는 [28]가장 오래된 광대한 스탑장식으로 불리며, 이 스탑은 자타카 일러스트의 [29]발상지로 여겨진다.스투파 2호 부조에는 현지 브라흐미 [26]문자와는 달리 카로쉬티로 석조 마크가 새겨져 있다.서북서부 출신 외국인 노동자(현재의 카로시티가 문자였던 간다라 지역 출신)가 사탑 [26]난간에서 볼 수 있는 모티브와 인물에 책임이 있음을 시사하는 것으로 보인다.기원전 115년 인도-그리스 왕 안티알키다스에서 인근 비디샤의 성가스 왕 바가브하드라의 궁정까지 헬리오도러스 대사관이 바스바우데에게 바쳐진 헬리오도러스 기둥을 세운 것으로 기록돼 있다.이것은 그 당시 관계가 개선되었고 사람들이 두 왕국을 [31]오갔다는 것을 나타낼 것이다.
 스투파 2호 슝가 시대이지만, 카로슈티에서 석공의 흔적은 북서쪽(간다라 지역)에서 온 장인들이 가장 이른 부조물(기원전 [26][27][22]115년경)을 가리키고 있다. |
![Lakshmi with lotus and two child attendants, probably derived from similar images of Venus[32]](/wiki/File:Lakshmi_Sanchi_Stupa_2.jpg)
스투파 3호
3호 스탑은 순가 시대에 지어졌으며, 계단뿐만 아니라 그 주변에 난간을 설치하였다.부처의 제자였던 사리푸트라와 마하모갈라나는 스투파 3호에 안치된 것으로 전해지며 이를 확인하기 [33]위해 유물상자가 출토됐다.
난간 위의 부조물은 스투파 [23]2호보다 약간 늦은 것으로 알려져 있다.
남쪽을 향한 하나의 토라나는 선가가 아니며,[23] 기원전 50년 경에 사타바하나 아래에 건설되었다.
 스투파 3호 (Stupa 및 난간만 Shunga입니다). |
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![Post relief.[34]](/wiki/File:Post_relief_Stupa_3_Sanchi.jpg){kind=small}
선가필러
산치의 25기둥은 기원전 21세기~1세기 성가스의 것으로 추정되며 기원전 [35]100년경 비디샤의 인도-그리스 왕 안티알키다스의 대사 헬리오도로스가 바친 현지의 캄바바 기둥이라고 불리는 헬리오도로스 기둥과 디자인이 비슷하다고 여겨진다.선가의 시대라는 것은 디자인이나 표면 드레싱의 특성에서 확연히 드러난다.
기둥의 높이는 수도를 포함하여 15피트이며, 기둥의 지름은 1피트 4인치이다.4피트 6인치 높이까지 샤프트는 8각형이며, 그 위는 16면입니다.팔각형 부분에서는 모든 면은 평탄하지만, 위쪽 부분에서는 다른 면은 홈이 패이고, 나머지 8면은 팔각형 배열의 오목 모따기로 형성된다.두 구역 사이의 전환점에서 아리스 마무리하는 이 방법은 기원전 2세기와 1세기의 특징이다.수갱의 서쪽은 갈라져 있지만, 꼭대기의 테논은 여전히 보존되어 있고, 수도는 굴욕을 당했습니다.수도는 일반적인 종 모양의 페르세폴리탄으로, 종 어깨 위로 연잎이 떨어진다.그 위에는 원형 케이블 목걸이, 그리고 구슬과 로젠지 무늬로 장식된 두 번째 원형 목걸이, 그리고 마지막으로 난간으로 장식된 깊은 사각형 주판이 있다.아마도 사자처럼 크라우닝 기능이 [35]사라졌습니다.
사타바하나 시대(기원전 1세기~기원전 1세기)
Dated circa 50 BCE- 0 CE.
The Satavahana Empire under Satakarni II conquered eastern Malwa from the Shungas.[38] This gave the Satavahanas access to the Buddhist site of Sanchi, in which they are credited with the building of the decorated gateways around the original Mauryan Empire and Sunga stupas.[39] From the 1st century BCE, the highly decorated gateways were built. The balustrade and the gateways were also colored.[6] Later gateways/toranas are generally dated to the 1st century CE.[25]
The Siri-Satakani inscription in the Brahmi script records the gift of one of the top architraves of the Southern Gateway by the artisans of the Satavahana king Satakarni II:[36]
𑀭𑀸𑀜𑁄 𑀲𑀺𑀭𑀺 𑀲𑀸𑀢𑀓𑀡𑀺𑀲 (Rāño Siri Sātakaṇisa)
𑀆𑀯𑁂𑀲𑀡𑀺𑀲 𑀯𑀸𑀲𑀺𑀣𑀻𑀧𑀼𑀢𑀲 (āvesaṇisa vāsitḥīputasa)
𑀆𑀦𑀁𑀤𑀲 𑀤𑀸𑀦𑀁 (Ānaṁdasa dānaṁ)"Gift of Ananda, the son of Vasithi, the foreman of the artisans of rajan Siri Satakarni"
There are some uncertainties about the date and the identity of the Satakarni in question, as a king Satakarni is mentioned in the Hathigumpha inscription which is sometimes dated to the 2nd century BCE. Also, several Satavahana kings used the name "Satakarni", which complicates the matter. Usual dates given for the gateways range from 50 BCE to the 1st century CE, and the builder of the earliest gateways is generally considered to be Satakarni II, who ruled in 50-25 BCE.[38][25] Another early Satavahana monument is known, Cave No.19 of king Kanha (100-70 BCE) at the Nasik Caves, which is much less developed artistically than the Sanchi toranas.
Material and carving technique
Although made of stone, the torana gateways were carved and constructed in the manner of wood and the gateways were covered with narrative sculptures. It has also been suggested that the stone reliefs were made by ivory carvers from nearby Vidisha, and an inscription on the Southern Gateway of the Great Stupa ("The Worship of the Bodhisattva's hair") was dedicated by the Guild of Ivory Carvers of Vidisha.[40][41]
The inscription reads: "Vedisakehi damtakārehi rupakammam katam" meaning "The ivory-workers from Vidisha have done the carving".[43][44] Some of the Begram ivories or the "Pompeii Lakshmi" give an indication of the kind of ivory works that could have influenced the carvings at Sanchi.
The reliefs show scenes from the life of the Buddha integrated with everyday events that would be familiar to the onlookers and so make it easier for them to understand the Buddhist creed as relevant to their lives. At Sanchi and most other stupas the local population donated money for the embellishment of the stupa to attain spiritual merit. There was no direct royal patronage. Devotees, both men and women, who donated money towards a sculpture would often choose their favourite scene from the life of the Buddha and then have their names inscribed on it. This accounts for the random repetition of particular episodes on the stupa (Dehejia 1992).
On these stone carvings the Buddha was never depicted as a human figure, due to aniconism in Buddhism. Instead the artists chose to represent him by certain attributes, such as the horse on which he left his father's home, his footprints, or a canopy under the bodhi tree at the point of his enlightenment. The human body was thought to be too confining for the Buddha.
Architecture: evolution of the load-bearing pillar capital
Similarities have been found in the designs of the capitals of various areas of northern India from the time of Ashoka to the time of the Satavahanas at Sanchi: particularly between the Pataliputra capital at the Mauryan Empire capital of Pataliputra (3rd century BCE), the pillar capitals at the Sunga Empire Buddhist complex of Bharhut (2nd century BCE), and the pillar capitals of the Satavahanas at Sanchi (1st centuries BCE/CE).[45]
The earliest known example in India, the Pataliputra capital (3rd century BCE) is decorated with rows of repeating rosettes, ovolos and bead and reel mouldings, wave-like scrolls and side volutes with central rosettes, around a prominent central flame palmette, which is the main motif. These are quite similar to Classical Greek designs, and the capital has been described as quasi-Ionic.[46][47] Greek influence,[48] as well as Persian Achaemenid influence have been suggested.[49]
The Sarnath capital is a pillar capital discovered in the archaeological excavations at the ancient Buddhist site of Sarnath.[50] The pillar displays Ionic volutes and palmettes.[51][52] It has been variously dated from the 3rd century BCE during the Mauryan Empire period,[53][50] to the 1st century BCE, during the Sunga Empire period.[51] One of the faces shows a galopping horse carrying a rider, while the other face shows an elephant and its mahaut.[51]
The pillar capital in Bharhut, dated to the 2nd century BCE during the Sunga Empire period, also incorporates many of these characteristics,[54][55] with a central anta capital with many rosettes, beads-and-reels, as well as a central palmette design.[45][56][57] Importantly, recumbent animals (lions, symbols of Buddhism) were added, in the style of the Pillars of Ashoka.
The Sanchi pillar capital is keeping the general design, seen at Bharhut a century earlier, of recumbent lions grouped around a central square-section post, with the central design of a flame palmette, which started with the Pataliputra capital. However the design of the central post is now simpler, with the flame palmette taking all the available room.[58] Elephants were later used to adorn the pillar capitals (still with the central palmette design), and lastly, Yakshas (here the palmette design disappears).
Main themes of the reliefs
Jatakas
Various Jatakas are illustrated. These are Buddhist moral tales relating edifying events of the former lives of the Buddha as he was still a Bodhisattva. Among the Jatakas being depicted are the Syama Jataka, the Vessantara Jataka and the Mahakapi Jataka.
Miracles
Numerous miracles made by the Buddha are recorded. Among them:
Temptation of the Buddha
Numerous scene refer to the temptation of the Buddha, when he was confronted with the seductive daughters of Mara and with his army of demons. Having resisted the temptations of Mara, the Buddha finds enlightenment. Other similar scenes on the same subject:
- Temptation of the Buddha with Mara's army fleeing.
- Enlightenment of the Buddha with Mara's army fleeing.[60]
War over the Buddha's Relics
The southern gate of Stupa No1, thought to be oldest and main entrance to the stupa,[62] has several depictions of the story of the Buddha's relics, starting with the War over the Relics.
After the death of the Buddha, the Mallakas of Kushinagar wanted to keep his ashes, but the other kingdoms also wanting their part went to war and besieged the city of Kushinagar. Finally, an agreement was reached, and the Buddha's cremation relics were divided among 8 royal families and his disciples.[63][64] This famous view shows warfare techniques at the time of the Satavahanas, as well as a view of the city of Kushinagar of the Mallakas, which has been relied on for the understanding of ancient Indian cities.
Other narrative panels related to the War over the Buddha's Relics at Sanchi are:
- "The King of the Mallakas bringing the relics of the Buddha to Kushinagara", right after the death of the Buddha, before the War itself. In this relief, the king is seen seated on an elephant, holding the relics on his head.[65]
- "The siege of Kushinagara by the seven kings", another relief on the same subject.
Removal of the relics by Ashoka
According to Buddhist legend, a few centuries later, the relics would be removed from the eight guardian kingdoms by King Ashoka, and enshrined into 84,000 stupas.[63][67][68] Ashoka obtained the ashes from seven of the guardian kingdoms, but failed to take the ashes from the Nagas at Ramagrama who were too powerful, and were able to keep them. This scene is depicted in one of the transversal portions of the southern gateway of Stupa No1 at Sanchi. Ashoka is shown on the right in his chariot and his army, the stupa with the relics is in the center, and the Naga kings with their serpent hoods at the extreme left under the trees.[69]
Building of the Bodh Gaya temple by Ashoka
Ashoka went to Bodh Gaya to visit the Bodhi Tree under which the Buddha had his enlightenment, as described his Major Rock Edict No.8. However Ashoka was profoundly grieved when he discovered that the sacred pipal tree was not properly being taken care of and dying out due to the neglect of Queen Tiṣyarakṣitā.[73]
As a consequence, Ashoka endeavoured to take care of the Bodhi Tree, and built a temple around it. This temple became the center of Bodh Gaya. A sculpture at Sanchi, southern gateway of Stupa No1, shows Ashoka in grief being supported by his two Queens. Then the relief above shows the Bodhi Tree prospering inside its new temple. Numerous other sculptures at Sanchi show scenes of devotion towards the Bodhi Tree, and the Bodhi Tree inside its temple at Bodh Gaya.[73]
Other versions of the relief depicting the temple for the Bodhi Tree are visible at Sanchi, such as the Temple for the Bodhi Tree (Eastern Gateway).
Foreign devotees
Some of the friezes of Sanchi also show devotees in Greek attire, wearing kilted tunics and some of them a Greek piloi hat.[75][76][74] They are also sometimes described as Sakas, although the historical period seems too early for their presence in Central India, and the two pointed hats seem too short to be Scythian.[74] The official notice at Sanchi describes "Foreigners worshiping Stupa".[77] The men are depicted with short curly hair, often held together with a headband of the type commonly seen on Greek coins. The clothing too is Greek, complete with tunics, capes and sandals, typical of the Greek travelling costume.[78] The musical instruments are also quite characteristic, such as the "thoroughly Greek" double flute called aulos.[74][79] Also visible are carnyx-like horns.[79]
The actual participation of Yavanas/Yonas (Greek donors)[80] to the construction of Sanchi is known from three inscriptions made by self-declared Yavana donors:
- The clearest of these reads "Setapathiyasa Yonasa danam" ("Gift of the Yona of Setapatha"),[81][82] Setapatha being an uncertain city, possibly a location near Nasik,[83] a place where other dedications by Yavanas are known, in cave No.17 of the Nasik Caves complex, and on the pillars of the Karla Caves not far away.
- A second similar inscription on a pillar reads: "[Sv]etapathasa (Yona?)sa danam", with probably the same meaning, ("Gift of the Yona of Setapatha").[83][84]
- The third inscription, on two adjacent pavement slabs reads "Cuda yo[vana]kasa bo silayo" ("Two slabs of Cuda, the Yonaka").[85][83]
Around 113 BCE, Heliodorus, an ambassador of the Indo-Greek ruler Antialcidas, is known to have dedicated a pillar, the Heliodorus pillar, around 5 miles from Sanchi, in the village of Vidisha.
Another rather similar foreigner is also depicted in Bharhut, the Bharhut Yavana (circa 100 BCE), also wearing a tunic and a royal headband in the manner of a Greek king, and displaying a Buddhist triratna on his sword.[86][87] Another one can be seen in the region of Odisha, in the Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves.
| Northwestern foreigners at Sanchi |
![Foreigners holding grapes and riding winged lions, Sanchi Stupa 1, Eastern Gateway.[88]](/wiki/File:Foreigners_riding_winged_lions_Sanchi_Stupa_1_Eastern_Gateway.jpg)
Aniconism
In all these scenes, the Buddha is never represented, being absent altogether even from scenes of his life where he is playing a central role: in the Miracle of the Buddha walking on the river Nairanjana he is just represented by his path on the water;[90] in the Procession of king Suddhodana from Kapilavastu, he walks in the air at the end of the procession, but his presence is only suggested by people turning their heads upward toward the symbol of his path.[90]
In one of the reliefs of the Miracle at Kapilavastu, King Suddhodana is seen praying as his son the Buddha rises in the air. The Buddha praised is praised by celestial beings, but only his path is visible in the form of a slab hanging in middle air, called a chankrama or "promenade".[89]
Otherwise, the presence of the Buddha is symbolized by an empty throne, as in the scene of Bimbisara with his royal cortege issuing from the city of Rajagriha to visit the Buddha.[59] Similar scenes would later appear in the Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara, but this time with representations of the Buddha. John Marshall detailed every panel in his seminal work "A Guide to Sanchi".[91]
This anoconism is relation to the image of the Buddha could be in conformity with an ancient Buddhist prohibition against showing the Buddha himself in human form, known from the Sarvastivada vinaya (rules of the early Buddhist school of the Sarvastivada): ""Since it is not permitted to make an image of the Buddha's body, I pray that the Buddha will grant that I can make an image of the attendant Bodhisattva. Is that acceptable?" The Buddha answered: "You may make an image of the Bodhisattava"".[92]
The Gateways or Toranas
The gateways depict various scenes of the life of the Buddha, as well as events after his death, in particular the War of the Relics and the efforts of emperor Ashoka to spread the Buddhist faith.
Stupa 1 Southern Gateway
The Southern Gateway of Stupa No1 is thought to be oldest and main entrance to the stupa.[93] The narrative friezes of this gateway put great emphasis on the relics of the Buddha, and on the role of Ashoka in spreading the Buddhist faith. This gateway is one of the two which were reconstructed by Major Cole in 1882–83. The whole of the right jamb and half of the left are new and blank, as well as the west end of the lowest architrave, the east end of the middle architrave, and the six vertical uprights between the architraves.[94]
| Southern Gateway ("Great Stupa" No1, Sanchi. 1st century BCE.) | ||
.JPG) | The Southern Gateway of Stupa 1. The Southern Gateway of Stupa 1 is one of the four richly carved gateways or toranas, surrounding Stupa 1, the "Great Stupa". It is the main one as it was erected in front of the steps by which the terrace was ascended. The Southern Gateway was also the first to be erected. Then followed, in chronological order, the Northern, the Eastern and the Western, their succession in each case being demonstrated by the style of their carvings. It is probable, however, that not more than three or four decades intervened between the building of the Southern and Western gateways. A few of the surfaces of the Southern Gateway are undecorated or lost. Like the other gateways, the Southern Gateway is composed of two square pillars surmounted by capitals, which in their turn support a superstructure of three architraves with volute ends.[95] | |
| Architraves | ||
 Front architraves |  Rear architraves | Some material was lost over two thousand years, and the restoration had to make up for lost elements with some blank slabs. The whole of the right jamb and half of the left are new, as well as the west end of the lowest architrave, the east end of the middle architrave, and the six vertical uprights between the architraves. When the gateway was restored, the top and the lowest lintels appear to have been reversed by mistake, since the more important sculptures on them now face the stupa instead of facing outwards.[94] |
.jpg) Front middle architrave | King Ashoka visits Ramagrama. King Ashoka visited Ramagrama, to take relics of the Buddha from the Nagas, but he failed, the Nagas being too powerful. After the death of the Buddha, his relics were originally divided into eight portions, and shared between eight princes. Each of the princes constructed a stupa at or near his capital city, within which the respective portion of the ashes was enshrined.[96] These eight stupas were erected at Rajagriha, Vaisali, Kapilavastu, Allakappa, Ramagrama, Vothadvipa, Pava and Kusinara.[97] | |
.jpg) Rear top architrave | The seven Buddhas. Six Buddhas of the past and Gautama Buddha, with his Bodhi Tree at the extreme right.In the central section are three stupas alternating with four trees with thrones in front of them, adored by figures both human and divine. These represent the six Buddhas of the past (namely : Vipassi, Sikhi, Vessabhu, Kakusandha, Konagamana and Kaasapa) and Gautama Buddha. Three are symbolized by their stupas, and four by the trees under which each respectively attained enlightenment. The tree on the extreme right is the pipal tree of Gautama Buddha and the one next to it is the banyan tree of Kasyapa Buddha. The identification of the others is less certain.  The Siri-Satakani inscription The inscription on the dome of the central stupa reads "L. 1. rano Siri Satakanisa/ L. 2. avesanisa vasithiputasa/ L. 3. Anamdasa danam" ("Gift of Anamda, the son of Vdsithi (Vdsishthi ), the foreman of the artisans (avesanin) of rajanSiri-Satakani).[94] This inscription has been decisive in attributing the construction of the gateways to the time of the Satavahana Empire. | |
 Rear bottom architrave | War over the Buddha's Relics.  This Sanchi relief permitted this reconstruction of the city of Kushinagara circa 500 BCE. The Buddha died in Kushinagara, the capital of the Mallakas, who initially tried to keep all the relics of the Buddha for themselves. A war erupted in which the chiefs of seven other clans waged war against the Mallakas of Kushinara for the possession of the Buddha's relics. In the centre of the architrave, the siege of Kushinara is in progress; to right and left, the victorious chiefs are departing in chariots and on elephants, with the relics borne on the heads of the latter.[94] | |
| Pillar capitals | ||
.jpg) Left |  Right | The pillars of the Southern Gateway feature lions in the manner of the Pillars of Ashoka. They are the only pillar capitals of the Sanchi complex to do so. |
| Pillars | ||
| External faces | ||
 |  | The left external face consists in a foliage scroll inhabited by numerous animals and garlands, as well as an amorous couple repeated several time. Of the right pillar external face, nothing remains, and it has been left blank by the reconstitution under Marshall. |
| Left pillar, Front face | ||
| Top panel |  | Ashoka with his two Queens visiting the Deer Park. A Persepolitan column, rising from a stepped base and supporting a wheel with thirty-two spokes and an equal number of triratna devices on its outer rim. This is the dharmachakra or "Wheel of the Law", the emblem of the Buddha's first sermon. On either side of the wheel are celestial figures with garlands; below them are four groups of worshipers, and below the latter, deers, to indicate the spot where the first sermon was preached, namely, in the Deer Park (Mrigadava) near Benares. In each of the groups of worshipers is a king with attendant females, the same figures apparently being repeated four times. They probably represent Asoka with his two queens visiting the Deer Park during his pilgrimage to the holy places of Buddhism.[97] |
| 2nd panel |  | Procession of king Ashoka on his chariot. The Emperor Asoka in his chariot with his retinue around.[97] |
| 3rd panel |  | The Cortège of Mara. According to Marshall, relating the panel to the next one on the inner face, deities are seen on foot, on horseback and on elephants, hastening to do homage to the Bodhisattva's locks.[97] |
| Left pillar, Inner face | ||
| Top panel |  | Bodhi tree temple of Bodh Gaya built by Ashoka. The temple around the Bodhi Tree (the pipal tree beneath which the Buddha had attained enlightenment) was erected by Asoka himself. This Temple is hypaethral. Here the sanctity of the tree is indicated by umbrellas and garlands, and on the throne inside the shrine are three triratna symbols.[97] |
| 2nd panel | | Ashoka in grief, supported by his two Queens. Ashoka is in grief as he saw the pipal tree of the Buddha being neglected by the jealous Queen Tishyarakshita. He is so shocked that he has to be supported by two of his wives. He would thereafter build a temple around the tree, seen in the panel above, and which would become the sacred temple of Bodh Gaya.[98][97] |
| 3rd panel |  | Worship of the Bodhisattva's hair. In the lowest panel of the inner face is a company of deities in the Trayastrimsa heaven, where Indra held sway, rejoicing over and worshiping the hair of the Bodhisattva. The story told in the Buddhist scriptures is that, before embracing a religious life, Gautama divested himself of his princely garments and cut off his long hair with his sword, casting both hair and turban into the air, whence they were borne by the devas to the Trayastrimsa heaven and worshiped there.[97] This particular relief was dedicated by the Guild of Ivory Carvers of Vidisha (horizontal inscription on the lintel), suggesting that a part of the gateways at least was made by ivory carvers.[40] At the least, the delicacy of workmanship and spatial effect attained in the panel of the Trayastrimsa heaven is particularly striking, and makes it understandable that, as the inscription on it records, it was the work of ivory-carvers of Vidisha. The inscription reads: 'Vedisehi dantakarehi rupadamam katam' meaning "The ivory-carvers from Vidisha have done the carving".[43][99] Some of the Begram ivories or the "Pompeii Lakshmi" give an indication of the kind of ivory works that could have influenced the carvings at Sanchi. |
| Left pillar, Rear face | ||
| Unique panel |  | To the left of the panel, a royal figure is seated beneath a canopy, holding a female by the hand; in the middle, another female seated on a low stool; to the right, two other figures standing, with a child behind bearing a garland (?). At the back of them is a plantain tree, and above, a Chaitya's window with an umbrella on either side. The meaning of this scene is uncertain.[97] |
| Right pillar | ||
| Blank. All reliefs and inscriptions lost. | ||
Stupa 1 Northern Gateway
The Northern Gateway is the best preserved of all the gateways, and was the second to be erected. The numerous panels relate various events of the life of the Buddha. Only one atypical panel (Right pillar, Inner face/ Top panel) shows Foreigners making a dedication at the Southern Gateway of Stupa No 1.
| Northern Gateway ("Great Stupa" No1, Sanchi. 1st century BCE.) | ||
 | The Northern Gateway of Stupa 1. The Northern Gateway of Stupa 1 is one of the four richly carved gateways or toranas, surrounding Stupa 1, the "Great Stupa". The Northern Gateway was the second to be erected. The best preserved of all four gateways is the Northern one, which still retains most of its ornamental figures and gives a good idea of the original appearance of all the gateways. Like the other gateways, the Northern Gateway is composed of two square pillars surmounted by capitals, which in their turn support a superstructure of three architraves with volute ends.[95] | |
| Architraves | ||
 Front architraves |  Rear architraves | The architraves are all almost intact. They are crowned by two large decorated Shrivatsa symbols in the round, symbols of Buddhism, as well as the remnants of a Dharmachakra (Wheel of the Law) at the center. The lintels have seated lions and Yakshinis, also in the round, at their ends. |
 Rear central architrave |  Temptation of the Buddha with Mara and his daughters, and the demons of Mara fleeing. Towards the left end of the panel is the pipal tree at Bodh Gaya with an umbrella and streamers above, and, in front, the diamond throne (Vajrasana) of the Buddha, whereon he sat when he withstood the temptations and threats of Mara, the Satan of Buddhism, and when he attained to Buddhahood. Human and celestial beings are adoring it. The figure to the left of it is perhaps Sujata, bringing the meal which she prepared for Gautama before he began his last meditation prior to his enlightenment. Near the middle of the panel is Mara, seated on a throne with attendants around, and advancing from him towards the throne are his daughters, who sought by their blandishments to seduce Gautama from his purpose. On his other side, i.e., in the right half of the panel, are the hosts of Mara's demons, personifying the vices, the passions and the fears of mankind. The vigor and humor with which these fantastic beings are portrayed is very striking, and far more forceful than anything of the kind produced by the artists of the Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara.[100] | |
| Pillar capitals | ||
 Left |  Right | Elephants facing the four directions decorate the top of the gateway pillars and support the architraves. They are gathered around a central pillar of square section decorated with a large flame palmette design. The capitals are flanked by a dancing Yakshini under foliage. |
| Pillars | ||
| External faces | ||
 Left |  Right | Left. The external side of the left pillar (facing the east) doesn't have narrative reliefs, but only displays Buddhist symbols as well as intricate vegetal designs. The external face is separated vertically in three bands, the central band consisting in a superposition of numerous flame palmettes (nine in total), and the two external bands consisting in a superposition of hooks holdings garlands. The bottom of the pillar face has two footprints of the Buddha with a wheel of the Law on their sole. The pillar face is crowned by a decorated Shrivatsa symbol.[101] Right. The external face on the right side has the same background decoration, with the three vertical bands and the superposition of flame palmettes, and hooks holdings garlands, but lacks the bottom and top symbols of the Buddha footprint and the decorated Shrivatsa. |
| Left pillar, Front face (Most of the scenes on this face appear to relate to Sravasti.) | ||
| Top panel | _Sanchi_Stupa_1_Northern_Gateway.jpg) |  The Buddha in levitation performing the Miracle of Sravasti, Gandhara, 100-200 CE. Great Miracle at Sravasti (also called Mango Tree Miracle, when the Buddha walks in the air). In the anthropomorphic (non-aniconic) Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara, the Buddha would simply be shown in his human form, rising slightly in the air, with flames springing from his feet and water emanating from his shoulders. |
| 2nd panel |  | Jetavana of Sravasti, showing the three preferred residences of the Buddha.  Jetavana story, Bharhut, 2nd century BCE. The Jetavana at Sravasti, showing the three favourite residences of the Buddha: the Gandhakuti, the Kosambakuti and the Karorikuti, with the throne of the Buddha in the front of each. The Jetavana garden was presented to the Buddha by the rich banker Anathapindika, who purchased it for as many gold pieces as would cover the surface of the ground. Hence, the foreground of the relief is shown covered with ancient Indian coins ( karshapanas ), just as it is in the similar relief at Bharhut, where the details of the coins are more in evidence.[101] |
| 3rd panel |  | Aerial promenade of the Buddha. Presumably, the long band on top of the heads of devotees is the promenade the Buddha is walking on. The long open pavilion (mandapa) calls to mind the one at Sravasti, which is portrayed in the Bharhut relief.[101] |
| 4th panel |  | Procession of King Prasenajit of Kosala leaving Sravasti to meet the Buddha. A royal procession issuing from a city gate, probably Prasenajit of Kosala going forth from Sravasti to meet the Buddha.[101] |
| 5th panel | _Sanchi_Stupa_1_Northern_gateway.jpg) | Paradise of Indra (nandana). The meaning of this scene, which is analogous to several others on the gateways, is not clear. Perhaps, like the scene on the gateways of Stupa No3, it may represent the Paradise of Indra (nandana), where pleasure and passion held sway.[101] |
| Left pillar, Inner face (This face refers particularly to Rajagriha) | ||
| Top panel |  |  Visit of Indra to the Buddha in the Indrasaila cave near Rajagriha. In the upper part of the panel is an artificial cave resembling in its facade many rock-cut Buddhist chaitya shrines in Western and Central India. In front of the door is the throne which marks the presence of the Buddha. The animals peering out from among the rocks serve to indicate the wildness of the spot. Below is the company of Indra in attitudes of worship, but which of these figures represents Indra and which his musician Panchasikha who accompanied him, it is not possible to determine.[101] |
| 2nd panel |  | Royal cortege leaving Rajagriha. A king and his royal cortege issuing from a city. As the panel on this side of the pillar relates particularly to Rajagriha, it is probable that the King is either Bimbisara or Ajatashatru, on a visit to the Buddha at the Gridhrakuta Hill, and that the city is Rajagriha.[101] See also: Siddhartha and King Bimbasara (in "The Life of Buddha"). |
| 3rd panel | _at_Rajagriha,_the_visit_of_Bimbisara.jpg) | Bamboo garden (Venuvana) at Rajagriha, the visit of Bimbisara. The Bamboo garden (Venuvana ) at Rajagriha, with the throne of the Buddha in the center and devotees around. The identity of the spot is indicated by the bamboos on either side of the panel.[101] This event refers to a visit of King Bimbisara to the Buddha.[101] |
| 4th panel |  | Dvarapala guardian deity. Positioned as it is, in the inside panel of the gateway, the deity guards the left side of the entrance to the stupa. This Dvarapala is faced by another one on the right side. |
| Right pillar, Inner face | ||
| Top panel |  | Foreigners making a dedication to Southern Gateway of the Great Stupa. Probably the dedication of a stupa, but it might also refer to the death (parinirvana) of the Buddha. Among the crowds who are celebrating the occasion with music and dancing, some are wearing dresses and high boots suggestive of a cold climate. The individual and realistic features of the people can also be noticed.[102] The official notice at Sanchi reads "Foreigners worshiping Stupa". The relief shows 18 of these foreigners and 4 Gandharva celestial deities in the sky above. These have been called "Greek-looking foreigners"[103] wearing Greek clothing complete with tunics, capes and sandals, typical of the Greek travelling costume,[78] and using Greek and Central Asian musical instruments ( the double flute aulos, or the carnyx-like Cornu horns), possibly pointing to the Indo-Greeks. |
| 2nd panel |  | Offering of a bowl of honey to the Blessed One by a monkey. The offering of a bowl of honey to the Blessed One by a monkey. The Buddha is here represented by his pipal tree and throne, to which devotees are doing obeisance. The figure of the monkey is twice repeated, first with the bowl and then with empty hands after the gift has been made. The incident is portrayed in much the same way on the reliefs of the Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara.[102] |
| 3rd panel | | Miracle at Kapilavastu. Suddhodana praying as his son the Buddha rises in the air, praised by celestial beings (only his path is visible). This panel is to be interpreted in conjunction with the corresponding panel adjoining it on the front face of the same pillar. When Buddha returned to his native city of Kapilavastu, his father Suddhodana came forth with a royal retinue to meet him, and a question of etiquette arose as to which should salute the other first: the father, who was king, or the son, who had become the Buddha. Thereupon the Buddha solved the difficulty by walking miraculously in mid-air. Here, in the panel on the inner face, we see a banyan tree, and, in front of it, the throne symbolizing the Buddha; while suspended in the air above it is the chahkrama or promenade on which the Buddha used to take his exercise and which here symbolises that he is walking in the air. Above it are celestial beings (gandharvas) with garlands in their hands. To the right of the tree is King Suddhodana with attendants, one of whom is holding the royal umbrella. The reason for the banyan tree (Ficus Indica, Skr : nyagrodha) is that King Suddhodana presented a park of banyan trees to his son on his return, and the tree, therefore, helps to localize the incident. In the corresponding scene on the front face the Buddha is probably represented in this park with disciples (but invisible due to aniconism) and followers around him.[102] |
| 4th panel |  | Dvarapala guardian deity. Positioned as it is, in the inside panel of the gateway, the deity guards the right side of the entrance to the stupa. This Dvarapala is faced by another one on the left side. |
| Right pillar, Front face | ||
| Top panel |  | .jpg) |
| 2nd panel |  | The Great Departure of the Buddha from Kapilavastu. A royal figure in a chariot drives forth from a city gate, with a horse in front. The scene is analogous to the scene of Buddha's departure from Kapilavastu on the East Gateway, but in that case there is no chariot, and in this case there is no umbrella above the horse to indicate the presence of the Buddha. However, a royal umbrella being held over an empty spot in the chariot would suggest the presence of the Buddha. The figure standing at its side with a water-pot (bhrihgara) in his hand indicates that a gift is being made. Alternatively, it could be King Suddhodana going forth from Kapilavastu to meet his son, the Buddha, on the occasion when he presented him with a park of mango trees.[104] See also Siddhartha Leaves His Father's Palace (in "The Life of Buddha"). |
| 3rd panel |  | Teaching the Sakyans: This panel may represent the Buddha teaching the Sakyans. It can also be interpreted in relation to the panel of the Miracle at Kapilavastu on the same pillar (Right pillar, Inner face,3rd panel). When Buddha returned to his native city of Kapilavastu, his father Suddhodana came forth with a royal retinue to meet him, and the Buddha performed his Miracle of the Walk in the Air. In this scene, on the front face of the pillar, the Buddha is probably represented in this very park with disciples and followers around him.[104] |
| 4th panel |  | Unidentified broken scene. |
Stupa 1 Eastern Gateway
The Eastern Gateway describes historical events during the life of the Buddha, as well as several miracles performed by the Buddha. It was the third gateway to be erected.
| Eastern Gateway ("Great Stupa" No1, Sanchi. 1st century BCE/CE.) | ||
| | The Eastern Gateway of Stupa 1. The Eastern Gateway of Stupa 1 is one of the four richly carved gateways or toranas, surrounding Stupa 1, the "Great Stupa". It is the third gateway to have been constructed. Like the other gateways, the Southern Gateway is composed of two square pillars surmounted by capitals, which in their turn support a superstructure of three architraves with volute ends.[95] | |
| Architraves | ||
 Front architraves |  Rear architraves | The architraves are all almost intact. They were crowned by two large decorated Shrivatsa symbols in the round, symbols of Buddhism (only one of them remains). The lintels have elephants mounted by Mahuts, and a single seated lion, at their ends. A single remaining Yakshini (top right corner) suggests that many more have been lost. |
 Front architrave, center | The Great Departure. During the night, Prince Siddharta leaves the Palace of Kapilavastu (far left) while his wife Yasodhara, his baby Rahula and the dancers are sleeping. Siddharta rides his horse Kanthaka, who is being lifted above the ground by Yakshas in order not to make noise and to avoid awakening the guards. The horse is seen progressing from left to right, away from the city, and progressively higher in the air. Siddharta is not visible, but a chatra royal parasol is held by Chandaka in order to signify the fact that Siddharta is riding on the horse. After his arrival in the forest on the right, Siddharta discards his robes, cuts off his hair and returns the horse to Chandaka. The horse is seen returning without a rider, walking on the ground this time, and, of course, devoid of the chatra parasol over it this time. When Siddharta stays in the forest, he is symbolized by the two soles of his feet (extreme right). Siddharta has renounced the world.[105] | |
| Central front architrave, right | | The famous Yakshini, under foliage and hanging in front of an elephant, on the side.of the East Gateway. |
| Pillar capitals | ||
| Right capital |  | The pillars of the Eastern Gateway feature elephants in the four direction, conducted by mahuts holding a Buddhist banner. They are gathered around a pillar of square section, decorated with a flame palmette design. A Yakshini under foliage flanks them on the side. |
| Pillars | ||
| Left pillar, Front face | ||
| Top panel |  | The Miracle of Walking in the air at Savrasti. While the Buddha walks in the air, devotees are aligned and look upwards. The Buddha is not visible (aniconism), and only his path (chankrama) is, separating the panel horizontally in two parts. |
| 2nd panel |  |  The Diamond throne as discovered. Temple for the Bodhi Tree in Bodh Gaya. The throne was discovered after excavations near the location of the Bodhi tree in the 19th century, and is now revered at the Mahabodhi Temple in Bodh Gaya. |
| 3rd panel |  | Miracle of the Buddha walking on the River Nairanjana. The Nairanjana river is shown in flood and Kasyapa accompanied by a disciple and a boatman are hastening in a boat to the rescue of the Buddha. Then, in the lower part of the picture, the Buddha, represented by his promenade (chahbama), appears walking on the face of the waters, and in the foreground the figures of Kasyapa and his disciple are twice repeated, now on dry ground and doing homage to the Master (represented by the throne at the right hand, bottom corner).[106] Throughout, The Buddha is not visible (aniconism), only represented by a path on the water, and his empty throne bottom right.[106] |
| Bottom panel |  | Bimbisara with his royal cortege issuing from the city of Rajagriha to visit the Buddha. Bimbisara with his royal cortege issuing from the city of Rajagriha, on a visit to the Buddha, here symbolized by his empty throne. This visit took place after the conversion of Kasyapa, which was brought about by a series of miracles, one of which is illustrated in the panel above.[106] |
| Left pillar, Inner face (This face is concerned with the miracles by which Buddha converted the BrahmanKasyapa and his disciples.) | ||
| Top panel |  | Visit of Indra and Brahma to the Buddha. The visit of Indra and Brahma to the Buddha takes place in the town of Uruvilva. Near the center of the panel is the throne indicating the presence of the Buddha, surmounted by the umbrella; behind it, Indra and Brahma standing in an attitude of adoration; in the background, the houses of Uruvilva and the people at their daily tasks. To the left, a man and woman, the woman grinding spices on a "cari" stone; nearby, to the right, another woman is at work at a table, while a third is pounding rice with pestle and mortar, and a fourth winnowing the grain with a fan. In the foreground is the river Nairanjana, with cattle on its banks and a woman drawing water in a pitcher. One of the villagers has his hands joined in the attitude of prayer.[106] |
| 2nd panel |  | Buddha tames the Naga at Uruvilva This panel is about the victory of the Buddha over the serpent in the fire chapel at Uruvilva. The Buddha obtained the permission of Kasyapa to pass the night in a fire chapel at his hermitage, which was inhabited by a fearsome Naga. The Naga attacked him with smoke and fire but was met with the same weapons, and being overcome crept into the Buddha's begging bowl. In the middle of the panel is the fire temple with a fire altar in front and a throne indicating the presence of the Buddha within, while behind the throne is the five-headed Naga. Flames are issuing from the windows in the roof. On either side of the temple are the Brahmanical ascetics standing in an attitude of respect and veneration. In the foreground, to the right, is a leaf-hut (parna-sala) and an ascetic at its threshold seated on a mat, with his knees bound up by a band and his hair (jafa) twisted turban-wise about his head. Evidently he is a Brahman doing penance. Before him is another Brahman standing and apparently reporting to him the miracle; and near by is a small fire altar and the instruments of Vedic sacrifice. To the left is the Nairanjana river, in which another ascetic is bathing and from which three young novices are drawing water.[106] |
| 3rd panel |  | The miracle of fire and wood. This is a depicting of the miracles of the wood, the fire and the offering. In the story of Kasyapa's conversion it is related that, after the miracle of the fire temple, a sacrifice was prepared by the Brahmans, but the wood for the fire could not be split, the fire could not be made to burn, and the oblation could not be offered, until in each case the Buddha gave his consent. In the relief, this triple miracle is dramatically represented. In the foreground, to the right, a Brahman ascetic has his axe raised to split the wood, but the axe will not descend until Buddha gives the word; then we see the axe driven home into the log. Similarly, a Brahman is engaged fanning the fire on an altar, but the fire will not burn until the Buddha permits it. Then we see the altar repeated and flames blazing upon it. The third phase of the miracle, that of the oblation, is indicated by the single figure of a Brahman holding an oblation spoon over a flaming altar. |
| Bottom panel |  | Dvarapala guardian. |
| Right pillar, Inner Face (This face of the pillar is devoted to scenes at Kapilavastu, the birthplace of Gautama) | ||
| Top panel |  | Homage of King Suddhodana to the Buddha. In the center, the tree and throne of the Buddha, with a group of worshipers around, including King Suddhodana, the father of the Buddha, who is standing immediately in front of the throne. The king wears the same headdress here as in the panel below. The episode represented is the homage paid by the King to his son after his return to Kapilavastu.[106] |
| Second panel |  | Procession of king Suddhodana from Kapilavastu.  At the top of the panel, Maya's dream of the visit of an elephant, in Kapilavastu. See also Maya's Dream (in "The life of Buddha)". At the top is portrayed the dream of Maya, the mother of the Buddha, otherwise called the conception of the Bodhisattva. Maya, the queen, is seen lying in a pavilion of the palace, and on her is descending the Bodhisattva in the form of a white elephant. This scene, which was well known to all Buddhists, serves to identify the city here represented as Kapilavastu. |
| Bottom panel |  | Dvarapala guardian. |
| Right pillar, Front Face | ||
| Full length |  | The six inferior heavens of the Gods. The six inferior heavens of the gods (Devalokas ) or "Kamavachara heavens", in which the passions are still unsubdued, an integral part of Buddhist cosmology. Starting from the base they are as follows: (1) The heaven of the Four Great Kings: the Regents of the Four Quarters (Lokapala; Chaturmaharajika); (2) The heaven of the Thirty-three gods (Trayastrimisa) over whom Sakra presides; (3) The heaven over which Yama, the God of Death, reigns, where there is no change of day or night; (4) The Tushita heaven, where the Bodhisattvas are born before they appear on earth as the saviors of mankind, and where Maitreya now resides; (5) The heaven of the Nirmanarati, who create their own pleasures; (6) The heaven of the Parinirmita-Vasavartin gods, who indulge in pleasures created for them by others and over whom Mara is king. Each of these six heavens or devalokas is represented by a storey of a palace, the front of which is divided by pillars into three bays, the pillars in the alternate storeys being either plain or provided with elaborate Persepolitan capitals. In the central bay there sits a god, like an Indian king, holding a thunderbolt (vajra) in his right hand and a flask containing nectar (amrita) in his left. Behind him are his women attendants holding the royal umbrella (Muttra) and flywhisk (chauri). In the bay to his right, seated on a slightly lower seat, is his viceroy (uparaja); and to his left are the court musicians and dancers. With slight variations the same figures are repeated in each of the six heavens. Nothing, perhaps, could give a better idea of the monotony of pleasure in the Buddhist heavens than the sameness of these reiterations. |
Stupa 1 Western Gateway
The Western Gateway of Stupa 1 is the last of the four gateway of the Great Stupa to have been built.
| Western Gateway ("Great Stupa" No1, Sanchi, 1st century BCE/CE.) | ||
 | The Western Gateway of Stupa 1. The Western Gateway of Stupa 1 is one of the four richly carved gateways or toranas, surrounding Stupa 1, the "Great Stupa". It is the last of the four gateway to have been constructed. Like the other gateways, the Western Gateway is composed of two square pillars surmounted by capitals, which in their turn support a superstructure of three architraves with volute ends.[95] | |
| Architraves | ||
 Front architraves |  Rear architraves | The architraves are all almost intact, but there are almost no remains of "in the round" decorations around or on top of the lintels. Only remains a fragment of capital with a base composed of lions, at the center top of the torana. |
 Rear top architrave | King of the Mallakas bringing the relics of the Buddha to Kushinagara. After the death of the Buddha his relics were taken possession of by the Mallakas of Kushinagara, whose chief is here depicted riding on an elephant and bearing the relics into the town of Kusinagara on his own head. The tree behind the throne in front of the city gate appears to be a Shala tree ( shorea robusta ), and to refer to the fact that Buddha's parinirvana took place in a grove of those trees. The two groups of figures carrying banners and offerings, which occupy the ends of this architrave, are probably connected with the central scene, serving to indicate the rejoicing of the Mallakas over the possession of the relics.[108] | |
 Rear middle architrave |  Siege of Kushinagara by the seven kings. This is another portrayal of "The war of the relics" (see Southern Gateway architrave). Here the seven rival claimants, distinguished by their seven royal umbrellas, are advancing with their armies to the city of Kushinagara, the siege of which has not yet begun. The seated royal figure at the left end of the architrave may represent the chief of the Mallakas within the city. The princely figures in the corresponding relief at the right end appear to be repetitions of some of the rival claimants.[108] | |
 Rear bottom architrave | Temptation of the Buddha with Mara's army fleeing. This scene extends over the three sections of the architrave, In the center is the temple of Bodh Gaya with the pipal tree and the throne of the Buddha within; to the right, the armies of Mara fleeing discomfited from the Buddha; to the left, the devas celebrating the victory of the Buddha over the Evil One and exalting his glorious achievements. The temple at Bodh Gaya, which enclosed the Bodhi tree, was built two centuries later by Emperor Ashoka. Its portrayal in this scene, therefore, is an anachronism.[108] | |
| Pillar capitals | ||
 Left |  Right | The pillar capitals consist in groups of four Yakshas (tectonic deities) supporting the architraves. |
| Pillars | ||
| Left pillar, Front face | ||
| Unique panel |  | Paradise of Indra. Probably the "Paradise of Indra" (nandana) with the river Mandakini in the foreground. This can be related to the scenes on the North Gateway and on the small gateway of the Third Stupa.[108] |
| Left pillar, Inner face | ||
| Top panel |  | Syama Jataka Syama, the Buddha in a previous life, was the only son of a blind hermit and his wife, whom he supports with devotion. One day, Syama goes to draw water at the river and is shot with an arrow by the King of Benares, who is out hunting. Owing to the king's penitence and his parents' sorrow Indra intervenes and allows Syama to be healed and his parents' sight to be restored. At the right hand top corner of the panel arc the two hermitages with the father and mother seated in front of them. Below them their son Syama is coming to draw water from the stream. Then, to the left, we see the figure of the King thrice repeated, first shooting the lad in the water, then with bow in hand, then standing penitent with bow and arrow discarded; and in the left top corner are the father, mother and son restored to health, and by their side the god Indra and the king. The Buddha in a previous life was thus given as an example of filial piety.[109] |
| 2nd panel |  | Enlightenment of the Buddha with the Nagas rejoincing. The scene depicts the enlightenment (sambodhi ) of the Buddha. In the center is the throne of the Buddha beneath the pipal tree, which is being garlanded by angels (gandharvas); round about are the Nagas and Nagis celebrating the victory of the Buddha over Mara.[110] See also: Siddhartha Becomes the Buddha (in "The Life of Buddha"). |
| Bottom panel |  |  Full relief.[111] Miraculous crossing of the Ganges by the Buddha when he left Rajagriha to visit Vaisali (partial remain). Only the upper part of this panel remains, but it appears to depict the miraculous crossing of the Ganges by the Buddha when he left Rajagriha to visit Vaisali. |
| Right pillar, Inner Face | ||
| Top panel |  | Enlightenment of the Buddha with Mara's army fleeing. The enlightenment (sambodhi) of the Buddha. Towards the top of the panel is the pipal tree and the throne of the Buddha, and round them a throng of worshipers, men and women, gods and animals. It is the moment after the discomfiture of Mara and his hosts. The Nagas, winged creatures, angels and archangels, each urging his comrades on, went up to the Great Being at the Bodhi tree's foot and as they came they shouted for joy that the sage had won; that the Tempter was overthrown. The deva with the giant head, riding either on the elephant or on the lion to the right of the panel, is probably meant to be Indra or Brahma. The interpretation of the three sorrowing figures standing on three sides of the throne in the foreground is problematical. In the Mahabhinishkramana scene on the East Gateway we have already seen that the artist inserted a jambu tree in the middle of the panel, to remind the spectator of the first meditation of the Bodhisattva and the path on which it led him. So, here, these three figures, which are strikingly similar to the three sorrowing Yakshas in the Mahdbhinishkramana scene and were probably executed by the same hand, may be a reminder of the Great Renunciation which led to the attainment of Buddhahood, the gateway behind being also a reminder of the gateway of Kapilavastu.[108] |
| Second panel |  | The Gods entreating Buddha to preach. The gods entreating the Buddha to preach. The Buddhist scriptures tell us that after his enlightenment the Buddha hesitated to make known the truth to the world. Then Brahma, Indra, the four Lokapalas (Regents of the Four Quarters) and the archangels of the heavens approached him and besought him to turn the Wheel of the Law. It was when the Buddha was seated beneath the banyan tree (nyagrodha) shortly after his enlightenment, that this entreaty was made, and it is a banyan tree with the throne beneath that is depicted in this relief. The four figures side by side in the foreground may be the four Lokapalas.[108] See also: The Buddha is Prepared to Preach the Doctrine (in "The Life of Buddha"). |
| Bottom panel |  | Dvarapala guardian. |
| Right pillar, Front Face | ||
| Top panel |  | Mahakapi Jataka. The story runs that the Bodhisattva was born as a monkey, ruler over 80,000 monkeys. They lived at a spot near the Ganges and ate of the fruit of a great mango tree. King Brahmadatta of Benares, desiring to possess the mangoes, surrounded the tree with his soldiers, in order to kill the animals, but the Bodhisattva formed a bridge over the stream with his own body and by this means enabled the whole tribe to escape into safety. The Mahakapi Jataka in Bharhut. Devadatta, the jealous and wicked cousin of the Buddha, was in that life one of the monkeys and, thinking it a good chance to destroy his enemy, jumped on the Bodhisattva's back and broke his heart. The king, seeing the good deed of the Bodhisattva and repenting of his own attempt to kill him, tended him with great care when he was dying and afterwards gave him royal obsequies. |
| 2nd panel |  | The Bodhisattva preaching in the Tushita Heaven. In the center of the panel is the tree and throne of the Buddha, and round about the throne a company of gods standing upon clouds in attitudes of adoration. At the top of the panel are gandharvas bringing garlands and below them, on each side of the tree, come Indra and Brahma, riding on lion-like creatures. A conventional method is used to depict the clouds beneath the feet of the gods in the foreground and among the figures in the upper part of the panel. They have the appearance almost of rocks with flames breaking from them.[108] |
| 3rd panel |  | The visit of Sakra. The Buddha, represented by his throne, beneath a flowery tree with hills and jungle around. Possibly the tree is the Rajayatana tree at Bodh Gaya, beneath which the Buddha sat shortly after his enlightenment. The figures in the foreground adoring the Buddha appear to be devas.[108] |
| 4th panel |  | Heraldic lions. Three heraldic lions standing on conventionalized floral device. The turn in the upper leaves is peculiar. This method of treating foliage is peculiar to the Early School and is never found in later work. The inscription over this panel records that the pillar was a gift of Balamitra, pupil of Ayachuda (Arya-kshudra).[108] |
Stupa 3 Southern Gateway
The gateway of Stupa No 3, is the last of all the Satavahana gateways that were built at Sanchi. It is located to the immediate south of Stupa No 3, is smaller than the four gateways encircling the Great Stupa. It is also slightly older, and generally dated to the 1st century CE.
| Southern Gateway (Stupa No 3, Sanchi. 1st century CE.) | ||
 | The gateway of Stupa No 3, located to the immediate south of Stupa No 3, is smaller than the four gateways encircling the Great Stupa. It is also slightly older, and generally dated to the 1st century CE. This gateway stands 17 feet high, and is adorned with reliefs in the same style as those on the gateways of the Great Stupa. Indeed, the majority of these reliefs are mere repetitions of the subjects and scenes portrayed on the larger gateways, with a few exceptions, especially the front face of the lowest architrave.[112] | |
| Architraves | ||
Front architraves | Architrave posts, or "false capitals", are roughly square-shaped and can be seen at the junction between architrave and pillar, and between the architraves themselves. Here, there are nine of them altogether on just the surface of the front architraves.
| |
 Top front architrave | Genies among foliage forming scrolls. This kind of scrolls are generally considered to be of Hellenistic origin, and were to be used extensively in the Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara as well.[113][114] | |
 Middle front architrave | Buddhas represented by a Chaitya and two Bodhi Trees and empty thrones. | |
.jpg) Bottom front architrave | The only scene which differs materially from those on the gateways of the Great Stupa is the one delineated on the front face of the lowest architrave, which appears to represent the Heaven of Indra (Nandanavana). In the centre is the pavilion of the god, with Indra himself seated on a throne surrounded by women attendants. In the foreground is the river MandakinI, which bounds the heaven of Indra, and to right and left of the pavilion are mountains and jungle forming a pleasure-garden for the gods and demigods who are taking their case therein. Then, in the corners next to the false capitals, are Naga kings seated with their attendants on the folds of seven-hooded Nagas, whose coils mingled with the waters of the river are carried through to the ends of the architrave, and go to form the spirals adorning its extremities. The sea monsters (Makaras) and the heroes wrestling with them, which are portrayed on the false capitals of this architrave, are particularly appropriate in this position, where their coils combine effectively with those of the Nagas.[112] | |
Rear architraves | Ordered left to right, from top to bottom:
| |
| Pillar capitals | ||
 Left |  Right | The pillar capitals consist in groups of four Yakshas (tectonic deities) supporting the architraves. This choice is similar to the last of the gateways of the Great Stupa, the Western Gateway. |
| Pillars | ||
| Left pillar, Front face | ||
 | The variety and the detail of the pillar panels is much less than at the Great Stupa. Here the first panel shows the adoration of a stupa by four Indian devotees. Then, other devotees simply line up in the second and the third panels below.
| |
| Left pillar, Inner face | ||
.jpg) Top panel. | Worshipping the Bodhi Tree. This classic and rather simply depicted scene is again the unique didactic scene on this face of the pillar. The following panel in only composed of aligned devotee, and at the bottom is a panel with Dvarapala guardian deity as seen on the other gateways, or possibly a devotee, as he seems not to be armed.
| |
| Left pillar, Rear face | ||
.jpg) Top panel. | Uncharacteristically, the rear panel of the left pillar of the gateway is fully decorated, down to its bottom. This can be explained by the fact that the stupa is not surrounded by a railing as in the Great Stupa, therefore rendering this rear space free. The right pillar of the gateway however does not have decoration on the back. The top panel is the Dharmacakra on a Pillar.
| |
| Right pillar, Inner Face | ||
.jpg) Top panel. | Worshipping the Bodhi Tree. This classic and rather simply depicted scene is again the unique didactic scene on this face of the pillar. It even faces a similar "Worshipping the Bodhi Tree" scene on the pillar surface facing it across the entrance. The next panel going down is only composed of aligned devotees, and at the bottom is a panel with Dvarapala guardian deity as seen on the other gateways, or possibly a devotee, as he seems not to be armed.
| |
| Right pillar, Front Face | ||
 |  This would be the Ashokan capital (wheel lost) depicted in this panel. Again variety and the detail of the pillar panels is much less than at the Great Stupa. The first panel however is extremely interesting, as it shows the adoration of what looks like the pillar of Ashoka at the Southern Gateway of the Great Stupa. Then other devotees simply line up in the second and the third panels below.
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Later periods
Further stupas and other religious Buddhist structures were added over the centuries until the 12th century CE.
Western Satraps
The rule of the Satavahanas in the area Sanchi during the 1st centuries BCE/CE is well attested by the finds of Satavahana copper coins in Vidisha, Ujjain and Eran in the name of Satakarni, as well as the Satakarni inscription on the Southern Gateway of Stupa No.1.[115]
Soon after, however, the region fell to the Scythian Western Satraps, possibly under Nahapana (120 CE),[116] and then certainly under Rudradaman I (130-150 CE), as shown by his inscriptions in Junagadh.[115] The Satavahanas probably regained the region for some time, but were again replaced by the Western Satraps in the mid-3rd century CE, during the rule of Rudrasena II (255-278 CE). The Western Satraps remained well into the 4th century as shown by the nearby Kanakerha inscription mentioning the construction of a well by the Saka chief and "righteous conqueror" Sridharavarman, who ruled circa 339-368 CE.[115] Therefore, it seems that the Kushan Empire did not extend to the Sanchi area, and the few Kushan works of art found in Sanchi appear to have come from Mathura.[115] In particular, a few Mathura statues in the name of the Kushan ruler Vasishka (247-267 CE) were found in Sanchi.[117][118]
Guptas
The next rulers of the area were the Guptas.[115] Inscriptions of a victorious Chandragupta II in the year 412-423 CE can be found on the railing near the Eastern Gateway of the Great Stupa.[119]
"The glorious Candragupta (II), (...) who proclaims in the world the good behaviour of the excellent people, namely, the dependents (of the king), and who has acquired banners of victory and fame in many battles"
— Sanchi inscription of Chandragupta II, 412-413 CE.[121]
Temple 17 is an early stand-alone temple (following the great cave temples of Indian rock-cut architecture), as it dates to the early Gupta period (probably first quarter of 5th century CE). It may have been built for Buddhist use (which is not certain), but the type of which it represents a very early version was to become very significant in Hindu temple architecture.[122] It consists of a flat roofed square sanctum with a portico and four pillars. The interior and three sides of the exterior are plain and undecorated but the front and the pillars are elegantly carved, giving the temple an almost 'classical' appearance,[120] not unlike the 2nd century rock-cut cave temples of the Nasik Caves. The four columns are more traditional, the octagonal shafts rising from square bases to bell capitals, surmounted by large abacus blocks carved with back-to-back lions.[123]
Next to Temple 17 stands Temple 18, the framework of a mostly 7th-century apsidal chaitya-hall temple, again perhaps Buddhist or Hindu, that was rebuilt over an earlier hall. This was probably covered by a wood and thatch roof.[124]
Near the Northwern Gateway also used to stand a Vajrapani pillar. Another pillar of Padmapani used to stand, and the statue is now in the Victoria and Albert Museum, London.
Lion pillar No 26
Pillar No26 stands a little to the north of the Sunga pillar No25. It belongs to the early Gupta age. Apart from its design, it is distinguished from the other pillars on the site by the unusual quality and colour of its stone, which is harder than that ordinarily quarried in the Udayagiri hill, and of a pale buff hue splashed and streaked with amethyst. At Sanchi this particular variety of stone was used only in monuments of the Gupta period. This pillar was approximately 22 ft. 6 in. in height and was composed of two pieces only, one comprising the circular shaft and square base, the other the bell-capital, necking, lions and crowning chakra. On the northwest side of the lowest section, which is still in situ, is a short mutilated inscription in Gupta characters recording the gift of the pillar by a viharasvamin (master of a monastery), the son of Gotaisimhabala.[125]
As was usual with pillars of the Gupta age, the square base projected above the ground level, the projection in this case being 1 ft. 2 in., and was enclosed by a small square platform. The lion capital of this pillar is a feeble imitation of the one which surmounted the pillar of Asoka, with the addition of a wheel at the summit and with certain other variations of detail. For example, the cable necking above the bell-capital, is composed of a series of strands bound together with a riband. Also, the reliefs on the circular abacus, consist of birds and lotuses of unequal sizes disposed in irregular fashion, not with the symmetrical precision of earlier Indian art. Finally, these lions, like those on the pillars of the Southern Gateway, are provided with five claws on each foot, and their modelling exhibits little regard for truth and little artistry.[125]
There has been much confusion about the dating of this pillars, since it was often presented from the beginning as a pillar of Ashoka. Marshall himself describes the pillar as early Gupta Empire in convincing terms, either from the points of view of material, technique or artistry.[125] The Government of India Photo Division describes it in this image as "An Asoka pillar and its broken lion capital near the south gateway of the Great Stupa." [6]. The British Library Online also describes it as 3rd century BCE Mauryan, although probably pasting the original text from the 19th century [7]. Sachim Kumar Tiwary in Monolithic Pillars of The Gupta Period, affirms a Gupta date.[126] The Sanchi Archaeological Museum gives it a date of 600 CE, which would even put it beyond the Gupta period proper, at the time of the Later Gupta dynasty.[127]
Pillar 35
The massive pillar near the North Gateway, numbered 35 in the plan, was erected during the Gupta period. Every feature, whether structural, stylistic or technical, is typical of Gupta workmanship. Most of the shaft has been destroyed, but the stump still remains in situ, and the foundations are intact. The form, too, of the platform around its base is sufficiently clear, and the capital and statue which it is said to have supported, are both relatively well-preserved. What remains of the shaft is 9 ft. in length, 3 ft. 10 in. of which, measured from the top, are circular and smooth, and the remainder, constituting the base, square and rough-dressed. In the Gupta age, it was the common practice to keep the bases of such monolithic columns square, whereas those of the Maurya age were invariably circular. The columns of the Maurya period are distinguished by its exquisite dressing and highly polished surface; but in this case the dressing of the stone is characterized by no such lustrous finish.[128]
The Persepolitan capital and square abacus ornamented with a balustrade in relief are cut entire from a single block of stone. So, too, is the statue which was found lying alongside the capital and which is believed to have belonged to the same pillar. This statue represents a man clad in a dhoti and adorned with bracelets, earrings, bejewelled necklace and headdress. The hair falls in curls over the shoulders and back, and beneath it at the back fall the ends of two ribbons.[128] It is thought that the statue represents Vajrapani. The attribution to Vajrapani is indicated by the stub of a vajra thunderbold in the right hand and a halo of 24 rays.[129] The dedication of the Vajrapani pillar is also mentioned in a 5th-century inscription.[130]
An interesting feature of the image is the halo which is pierced with twelve small holes evenly disposed around its edge. Manifestly the halo, is too small in proportion to the size of the statue, and these holes were no doubt intended for the attachment of the outer rays, which were probably fashioned out of copper gilt, the rest of the statue itself being possibly painted or gilded. This statue stood on the summit of the pillar, and is a work of the Gupta period.[128] The statue is currently in the Sanchi Archaeological Museum and is attributed to the 5th century CE.[131]
| Gupta period remains |
|
.JPG)
![Pillar 34 with lion.[132]](/wiki/File:Sanchi_pillar_with_single_lion.jpg){kind=small}
Following the destruction of the Guptas by the Alchon Huns, and with the decline of Buddhism in India, Buddhist artistic creation at Sanchi slowed down.
Temple 45 was the last Buddhist temple built during the mid to late 9th century.[133] Another point to be noted is that at that time the monuments were enclosed within a wall.
With the decline of Buddhism in India, the monuments of Sanchi went out of use and fell into a state of disrepair. In 1818, General Taylor of the Bengal Cavalry recorded a visit to Sanchi. At that time the monuments were left in a relatively good condition. Although the jungle had overgrown the complex, several of the Gateways were still standing, and Sanchi, being situated on a hill, had escaped the onslaught of the Muslim conquerors who had destroyed the nearby city of Vidisha (Bhilsa) only 5 miles away.[134]
Sanchi and the Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara
Although the initial craftsmen for stone reliefs in Sanchi seem to have come from Gandhara, with the first reliefs being carved at Sanchi Stupa No.2 circa 115 BCE,[26] the art of Sanchi thereafter developed considerably in the 1st century BCE/CE and is thought to predate the blooming of the Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara, which went on to flourish until around the 4th century CE. The art of Sanchi is thus considered as the ancestor of the didactic forms of Buddhist art that would follow, such as the art of Gandhara.[135] It is also, with Bharhut, the oldest.[136]
As didactic Buddhist reliefs were adopted by Gandhara, the content evolved somewhat together with the emergence of Mahayana Buddhism, a more theistic understanding of Buddhism. First, although many of the artistic themes remained the same (such as Maya's dream, The Great Departure, Mara's attacks...), many of the stories of the previous lives of the Buddha were replaced by the even more numerous stories about the Bodhisattvas of the Mahayana pantheon.[135] Second, another important difference is the treatment of the image of the Buddha: whereas the art of Sanchi, however detailed and sophisticated, is aniconic,[137] the art of Gandhara added illustrations of the Buddha as a man wearing Greek-style clothing to play a central role in its didactic reliefs.[138][139]
The presence of Greeks at or near Sanchi at the time is known (Indo-Greek ambassador Heliodorus at Vidisha circa 100 BCE, the Greek-like foreigners illustrated at Sanchi worshiping the Great Stupa, or the Greek "Yavana" devotees who had dedicatory inscriptions made at Sanchi[83]), but more precise details about exchanges or possible routes of transmission are elusive.
| Sanchi and the Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara | |||||
| Maya's dream | The Great Departure | Mara's attack | Enlightenment | The Buddha Preaching | |
| Sanchi (1st c. BCE/CE) | Maya's dream of a white elephant. | The Buddha, under the umbrella on the chariot, is not illustrated. | The Buddha is symbolized by an empty throne. | The Buddha is symbolized by an empty throne. | The Buddha is symbolized by an empty throne. |
| Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara (1st c.CE-4th c.CE) |  Very similar illustration from Gandhara. |  The Buddha in person leaves the city. | _(12488794514).jpg) The Buddha is illustrated centrally. |  The Buddha is illustrated centrally. |  The Buddha is illustrated centrally. |
Western rediscovery
General Henry Taylor (1784–1876) who was a British officer in the Third Maratha War of 1817–1819, was the first known Western historian to document in 1818 (in English) the existence of Sanchi Stupa. The site was in a total state of abandon. The Great Stupa was clumsily breached by Sir Herbert Maddock in 1822, although he was not able to reach the center, and he then abandoned.[140] Alexander Cunningham and Frederick Charles Maisey made the first formal survey and excavations at Sanchi and the surrounding stupas of the region in 1851.[141][140] Amateur archaeologists and treasure hunters ravaged the site until 1881, when proper restoration work was initiated. Between 1912 and 1919 the structures were restored to their present condition under the supervision of Sir John Marshall.[142]
19th Century Europeans were very much interested in the Stupa which was originally built by Ashoka. French sought the permission of Shahjehan Begum to take away the eastern gateway to France. English, who had established themselves in India, majorly as a political force, were interested too in carrying it to England for a museum. They were satisfied with plaster-cast copies which were carefully prepared and the original remained at the site, part of Bhopal state. The rule of Bhopal, Shahjehan Begum and her successor Sultan Jehan Begum, provided money for the preservation of the ancient site. John Marshall, Director-General of the Archaeological Survey of India from 1902 to 1928, acknowledged her contribution by dedicating his important volumes on Sanchi to Sultan Jehan. She had funded the museum that was built there. As one of the earliest and most important Buddhist architectural and cultural pieces, it has drastically transformed the understanding of early India with respect to Buddhism. It is now a marvellous example of the carefully preserved archaeological site by the Archeological Survey of India. The place of Sanchi Stupa in Indian history and culture can be gauged from the fact that Reserve Bank of India introduced new 200 Indian Rupees notes with Sanchi Stupa in 2017.
Since Sanchi remained mostly intact however, only few artefacts of Sanchi can be found in Western Museum: for example, the Gupta statue of Padmapani is at the Victoria and Albert Museum in London, and one of the Yashinis can be seen at the British Museum.
Today, around fifty monuments remain on the hill of Sanchi, including three main stupas and several temples. The monuments have been listed among other famous monuments in the UNESCO World Heritage Sites since 1989.
The reliefs of Sanchi, especially those depicting Indian cities, have been important in trying to imagine what ancient Indian cities look like. Many modern simulations are based on the urban illustrations of Sanchi.[143]
Great Stupa, Eastern Gateway, in 1875.
West Gateway in 1882.
South Gateway in 1882.
Great Stupa, Northern Gateway in 1861.
Temple 18 in 1861.
A vision of ancient Indian court life, using motifs from Sanchi (wood engraving, 1878).
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Chetiyagiri Vihara and the Sacred Relics
The bone relics (asthi avashesh) of Buddhist Masters along with the reliquaries, obtained by Maisey and Cunningham were divided and taken by them to England as personal trophies.[144] Maisey's family sold the objects to Victoria and Albert Museum where they stayed for a long time. The Buddhists in England, Sri Lanka and India, led by the Mahabodhi Society demanded that they be returned. Some of the relics of Sariputta and Moggallana were sent back to Sri Lanka, where they were publicly displayed in 1947.[145] It was such a grand event where the entire population of Sri Lanka came to visit them. However, they were later returned to India. But a new temple Chetiyagiri Vihara was constructed to house the relics, in 1952.[146] In a nationalistic sense, this marked the formal reestablishment of the Buddhist tradition in India. Some of the relics were obtained by Burma.[147]
Inscriptions
.JPG)
Sanchi, especially Stupa 1, has a large number of Brahmi inscriptions. Although most of them are small and mention donations, they are of great historical significance. James Prinsep in 1837, noted that most of them ended with the same two Brahmi characters. Princep took them as "danam" (donation), which permitted the decipherment of the Brahmi script.[150][151]
An analysis of the donation records[152] shows that while a large fraction of the donors were local (with no town specified), a number of them were from Ujjain, Vidisha, Kurara, Nadinagar, Mahisati, Kurghara, Bhogavadhan and Kamdagigam. Three inscriptions are known from Yavana (Indo-Greek)[80] donors at Sanchi, the clearest of which reads "Setapathiyasa Yonasa danam" ("Gift of the Yona of Setapatha"), Setapatha being an uncertain city.[83]
See also
| Pilgrimage to |
| Buddha's Holy Sites |
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References
- ^ Buddhist Art Frontline Magazine 13–26 May 1989
- ^ Buddhist Landscapes in Central India: Sanchi Hill and Archaeologies of Religious and Social Change, c. Third Century BC to Fifth Century AD, Julia Shaw, Routledge, 12 Aug 2016
- ^ Buddhist Circuit in Central India: Sanchi, Satdhara, Sonari, Andher, Travel ... p. 31
- ^ [1] Rs 50, Rs 200, Rs 500 and Rs 2000 notes images: Here are the new currency notes released by RBI
- ^ a b c d e Buddhist Circuit in Central India: Sanchi, Satdhara, Sonari, Andher, Travel Guide. Goodearth Publications. 2010. p. 12. ISBN 9789380262055.
- ^ a b c d World Heritage Monuments and Related Edifices in India, Volume 1 p. 50 by Alī Jāvīd, Tabassum Javeed, Algora Publishing, New York [2]
- ^ a b Marshall, "A Guide to Sanchi" p. 31
- ^ The Butkara Stupa is an example of such a hemispherical stupa structure from the Maurya period, that was extensively documented through archaeological work
- ^ Marshall, "A Guide to Sanchi" p. 8ff Public Domain text
- ^ Reconstitution with four lions and crowning wheel by Percy Brown: Diagram of Sanchi Great Stupa
- ^ a b Described in Marshall pp. 25-28 Ashoka pillar.
- ^ a b Buddhist Architecture by Huu Phuoc Le p. 155
- ^ John Marshall, "A Guide to Sanchi" p. 93 Public Domain text
- ^ a b Marshall, "A Guide to Sanchi" p. 90ff Public Domain text
- ^ Buddhist Architecture, Lee Huu Phuoc, Grafikol 2009, p. 147
- ^ Singh, Upinder (2016). The Idea of Ancient India: Essays on Religion, Politics, and Archaeology (in Arabic). SAGE Publications India. ISBN 9789351506454.
- ^ Abram, David; (Firm), Rough Guides (2003). The Rough Guide to India. Rough Guides. ISBN 9781843530893.
- ^ a b Marshall, John (1955). Guide to Sanchi.
- ^ Chakrabarty, Dilip K. (2009). India: An Archaeological History: Palaeolithic Beginnings to Early Historic Foundations. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199088140.
- ^ "Who was responsible for the wanton destruction of the original brick stupa of Ashoka and when precisely the great work of reconstruction was carried out is not known, but it seems probable that the author of the former was Pushyamitra, the first of the Shunga kings (184-148 BC), who was notorious for his hostility to Buddhism, and that the restoration was affected by Agnimitra or his immediate successor." in John Marshall, A Guide to Sanchi, p. 38. Calcutta: Superintendent, Government Printing (1918).
- ^ Buddhist Landscapes in Central India: Sanchi Hill and Archaeologies of Religious and Social Change, c. Third Century BC to Fifth Century AD Julia Shaw, Routledge, 2016 p. 58
- ^ a b c d Buddhist Landscapes in Central India: Sanchi Hill and Archaeologies of Religious and Social Change, C. Third Century BC to Fifth Century AD, Julia Shaw, Left Coast Press, 2013 p. 88ff
- ^ a b c d e Buddhist Architecture Huu Phuoc Le, Grafikol, 2010 p. 149
- ^ Marshall, John (1936). A guide to Sanchi. Patna: Eastern Book House. p. 36. ISBN 81-85204-32-2.
- ^ a b c d Ornament in Indian Architecture Margaret Prosser Allen, University of Delaware Press, 1991 p. 18
- ^ a b c d e f An Encyclopaedia of Indian Archaeology, by Amalananda Ghosh, BRILL p. 295
- ^ a b c d e f Buddhist Landscapes in Central India: Sanchi Hill and Archaeologies of Religious and Social Change, C. Third Century BC to Fifth Century AD, Julia Shaw, Left Coast Press, 2013 p. 90
- ^ a b "The railing of Sanchi Stupa No.2, which represents the oldest extensive stupa decoration in existence, (and) dates from about the second century B.C.E." Constituting Communities: Theravada Buddhism and the Religious Cultures of South and Southeast Asia, John Clifford Holt, Jacob N. Kinnard, Jonathan S. Walters, SUNY Press, 2012 p. 197
- ^ a b Didactic Narration: Jataka Iconography in Dunhuang with a Catalogue of Jataka Representations in China, Alexander Peter Bell, LIT Verlag Münster, 2000 p. 15ff
- ^ Buddhist Architecture, Huu Phuoc Le, Grafikol, 2010 p. 149
- ^ Ancient Indian History and Civilization, Sailendra Nath Sen, New Age International, 1999 p. 170
- ^ An Indian Statuette From Pompeii, Mirella Levi D'Ancona, in Artibus Asiae, Vol. 13, No. 3 (1950) p. 171
- ^ Marshall p. 81
- ^ Marshall p. 82
- ^ a b Marhall, "A Guide to Sanchi" p. 95 Pillar 25. Public Domain text
- ^ a b Alcock, Susan E.; Alcock, John H. D'Arms Collegiate Professor of Classical Archaeology and Classics and Arthur F. Thurnau Professor Susan E.; D'Altroy, Terence N.; Morrison, Kathleen D.; Sinopoli, Carla M. (2001). Empires: Perspectives from Archaeology and History. Cambridge University Press. p. 169. ISBN 9780521770200.
- ^ a b John Marshall, "A guide to Sanchi", p. 48
- ^ a b Indian History. Tata McGraw-Hill Education. p. 251. ISBN 9781259063237.
- ^ Jain, Kailash Chand (1972). Malwa Through The Ages. Motilal Banarsidass Publ. p. 154. ISBN 9788120808249.
- ^ a b World Heritage Monuments and Related Edifices in India, Volume 1 by Alī Jāvīd, Tabassum Javeed, Algora Publishing, 2008 p. 51
- ^ In the Realm of Gods and Kings by Andrew Topsfield, Philip Wilson Publishers, 2014 p. 250
- ^ Chakrabarti, Manika (1981). Mālwa in Post-Maurya Period: A Critical Study with Special Emphasis on Numismatic Evidences. Punthi Pustak. p. 100.
- ^ a b Indian and Foreign Review – Volume 23 – Page 58, 1985
- ^ Vogel, Jean Ph (1947). India antiqua. Brill Archive. p. 130.
- ^ a b The East: Buddhists, Hindus and the Sons of Heaven, Architecture in context II, Routledge, 2015, by Christopher Tadgell p. 24
- ^ A Companion to Asian Art and Architecture by Deborah S. Hutton, John Wiley & Sons, 2015, p. 438
- ^ "Buddhist Architecture" by Huu Phuoc Le Grafikol, 2010, p. 44
- ^ the "pilaster capitals with Greek florals and a form which is of Greek origin (though generally described as Persian) go back to Late Archaic."in "The Diffusion of Classical Art in Antiquity" John Boardman, Princeton University Press, 1993, p. 110
- ^ "The Archaeology of South Asia: From the Indus to Asoka, c.6500 BCE-200 CE" Robin Coningham, Ruth Young Cambridge University Press, 31 aout 2015, p. 414 [3]
- ^ a b Archaeological Survey Of India Annual Report 1906-7. 1909. p. 72.
- ^ a b c Mani, B. R. (2012). Sarnath : Archaeology, Art and Architecture. Archaeological Survey of India. p. 60.
- ^ Majumdar, B. (1937). Guide to Sarnath. p. 41.
- ^ Presented as a "Mauryan capital, 250 BC" with the addition of recumbent lions at the base, in the page "Types of early capitals" in Brown, Percy (1959). Indian Architecture (Buddhist And Hindu). p. x.
- ^ Early Buddhist Narrative Art by Patricia Eichenbaum Karetzky p. 16
- ^ Early Byzantine Churches in Macedonia & Southern Serbia by R.F. Hoddinott p. 17
- ^ India Archaeological Report, Cunningham, pp. 185-196
- ^ Age of the Nandas and Mauryas by Kallidaikurichi Aiyah Nilakanta Sastri p. 376 sq
- ^ A Comprehensive History Of Ancient India (3 Vol. Set), Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd, 2003 p. 87
- ^ a b A Guide to Sanchi, Marshall p. 65
- ^ Marshall p. 71
- ^ Marshall p. 55
- ^ [A Guide To Sanchi, Marshall, John, 1918 https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.35740 p. 37]
- ^ a b Lopez Jr., Donald S. "The Buddha's relics". Encyclopædia Britannica.
- ^ Strong, J.S. (2007). Relics of the Buddha. Princeton University Press. pp. 136–37. ISBN 978-0-691-11764-5.
- ^ Marshall pp. 68-69
- ^ a b Asiatic Mythology by J. Hackin p. 83ff
- ^ Strong 2007, pp. 136–37.
- ^ Asoka and the Buddha-Relics, T.W. Rhys Davids, Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, 1901, pp. 397-410 [4]
- ^ Asiatic Mythology by J. Hackin p. 84
- ^ a b Singh, Upinder (2017). Political Violence in Ancient India. Harvard University Press. p. 162. ISBN 9780674975279.
- ^ Singh, Upinder (2008). A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century. Pearson Education India. p. 333. ISBN 9788131711200.
- ^ Thapar, Romila (2012). Aśoka and the Decline of the Mauryas. Oxford University Press. p. 27. ISBN 9780199088683.
- ^ a b Ashoka in Ancient India Nayanjot Lahiri, Harvard University Press, 2015 p. 296
- ^ a b c d "Musicians generally described as "Greeks" from the eastern gateway at Sanchi" in Stoneman, Richard (2019). The Greek Experience of India: From Alexander to the Indo-Greeks. Princeton University Press. pp. 441–444, Fig. 15.6. ISBN 9780691185385.
- ^ "Sculptures showing Greeks or the Greek type of human figures are not lacking in ancient India. Apart from the proverbial Gandhara, Sanchi and Mathura have also yielded many sculptures that betray a close observation of the Greeks." in Graeco-Indica, India's cultural contacts, by Udai Prakash Arora, published by Ramanand Vidya Bhawan, 1991, p. 12
- ^ These "Greek-looking foreigners" are also described in Susan Huntington, "The art of ancient India", p. 100
- ^ Sanchi notice "Foreigners worshiping Stupa"
- ^ a b "The Greeks evidently introduced the himation and the chiton seen in the terracottas from Taxila and the short kilt worn by the soldier on the Sanchi relief." in Foreign influence on Indian culture: from c. 600 B.C. to 320 A.D., Manjari Ukil Originals, 2006, p. 162
- ^ a b "The scene shows musicians playing a variety of instruments, some of them quite extraordinary such as the Greek double flute and wind instruments with dragon head from West Asia" in The Archaeology of Seafaring in Ancient South Asia, Himanshu Prabha Ray, Cambridge University Press, 2003 p. 255
- ^ a b Purātattva, Number 8. Indian Archaeological Society. 1975. p. 188.
A reference to a Yona in the Sanchi inscriptions is also of immense value.(...) One of the inscriptions announces the gift of a Setapathia Yona, "Setapathiyasa Yonasa danam" i.e the gift of a Yona, inhabitant of Setapatha. The word Yona can't be here anything, but a Greek donor
- ^ Epigraphia Indica Vol.2 p. 395 inscription 364
- ^ John Mashall, The Monuments of Sanchi p. 348 inscription No.475
- ^ a b c d e The Idea of Ancient India: Essays on Religion, Politics, and Archaeology, Sage Publications India, Upinder Singh, 2016 p. 18
- ^ John Mashall, The Monuments of Sanchi p. 308 inscription No.89
- ^ John Mashall, The Monuments of Sanchi p. 345 inscription No.433
- ^ a b Faces of Power: Alexander's Image and Hellenistic Politics by Andrew Stewart p. 180
- ^ a b "The Diffusion of Classical Art in Antiquity", John Boardman, 1993, p. 112
- ^ "The Diffusion of Classical Art in Antiquity, John Boardman, 1993, p. 112 Note 91
- ^ a b Marshall p. 58 Third Panel
- ^ a b Marshall p. 64
- ^ A Guide to Sanchi, John Marshall
- ^ Rhi, Ju-Hyung (1994). "From Bodhisattva to Buddha: The Beginning of Iconic Representation in Buddhist Art". Artibus Asiae. 54 (3/4): 220–221. doi:10.2307/3250056. JSTOR 3250056.
- ^ A Guide To Sanchi, Marshall, John, 1918 p. 37
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k John Marshall, A Guide to Sanchi, 1918 p. 46ff (Public Domain text)
- ^ a b c d John Marshall, A Guide to Sanchi, 1918 p. 37ff (Public Domain text)
- ^ Shrestha, SS (1999). "Ramagrama excavation" (PDF). Ancient Nepal: Journal of the Department of Archaeology. 142: 1–12. Retrieved 30 November 2014.
- ^ a b c d e f g h A Guide to Sanchi, John Marshall p. 50ff Public Domain text
- ^ Interpretation in "Ashoka in Ancient India", by Nayanjot Lahiri, Harvard University Press, 2015 p. 296
- ^ Epigraphia Indice Vol.2 p. 378 Inscription No.200
- ^ Marshall p. 55ff Public Domain text
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j John Marshall, A Guide to Sanchi, 1918 p. 58ff (Public Domain text)
- ^ a b c John Marshall, A Guide to Sanchi, 1918 p. 57ff (Public Domain text)
- ^ Susan Huntington, "The art of ancient India", p. 100
- ^ a b c Marshall p. 56
- ^ The Buddha Image: Its Origin and Development, Yuvraj Krishan, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, 1996 p. 4
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Marshall p. 60ff Public Domain text
- ^ A Guide to Sanchi, Marshall p. 62ff Public Domain text
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j Marshall "A Guide to Sanchi" p. 68ff Public Domain text
- ^ Marshall
- ^ a b Marshall p. 73
- ^ a b Maisey, Sanchi and its remains", Plaque XXI
- ^ a b Marshall, " A Guide to Sanchi" p. 83 Public Domain text
- ^ Buddhist Art in India, Ceylon, and Java, Jean Philippe Vogel, Adriaan Jacob Barnouw, Asian Educational Services, 1936 p. 41
- ^ The Goose in Indian Literature and Art, Brill Archive p. 58
- ^ a b c d e Buddhist Landscapes in Central India: Sanchi Hill and Archaeologies of Religious and Social Change, c. Third Century BC to Fifth Century AD, Julia Shaw, Routledge, 2016 pp. 58-59
- ^ Indian Numismatic Studies by K. D. Bajpai p. 100
- ^ Mitra, Debala (2001). Sanchi. Archeological Survey of India. p. 7 Note 1.
- ^ Kuraishi, Mohammad Hamid; Kak, Ram Chandra; Chanda, Ramaprasad; Marshall, John Hubert (1922). Catalogue of the Museum of Archaeology at Sanchi, Bhopal State. Calcutta, Superintendent Government Printing, India. pp. 29–32.
- ^ Marshall, The Monuments of India p. 388
- ^ a b 2500 Years of Buddhism by P.V. Bapat, p. 283
- ^ Marshall, The Monuments of India p. 388 inscription 833
- ^ Rowland, 219-220; Harle, 111; Michell (1988), 94
- ^ Rowland, 219-220
- ^ Rowland, 219; Michell (1990), 185
- ^ a b c Marshall "A Guide to Sanchi" p. 96 Pillar 26. Public Domain text
- ^ Sachim Kumar Tiwary in Monolithic Pillars of The Gupta Period B.R. Publishing Corporation 2014 p. 92, page scan
- ^ Sanchi Archaeological Museum website notice [5]
- ^ a b c Marshall "A Guide to Sanchi" p. 97 Pillar 35. Public Domain text
- ^ Great Monuments of India, DK p. 41
- ^ Malwa Through The Ages, by Kailash Chand Jain p. 277
- ^ "Buddhist Landscapes in Central India: Sanchi Hill and Archaeologies of Religious and Social Change, c. Third Century BC to Fifth Century AD", Julia Shaw, Routledge, 2016 p. 20
- ^ Marshall p. 52 Pillar 34
- ^ Reconstructing a Latina Temple Spire: Temple 45, Sanchi, Dissertation submitted to Cardiff University, Fiona Buckee, 2010
- ^ Ornament in Indian Architecture, Margaret Prosser Allen, University of Delaware Press, 1991 p. 18
- ^ a b Didactic Narration: Jataka Iconography in Dunhuang with a Catalogue of Jataka Representations in China, Alexander Peter Bell, LIT Verlag Münster, 2000 p. 31ff
- ^ Asoka, Mookerji Radhakumud, Motilal Banarsidass Publishe, 1962 p. 204
- ^ The Buddha Image: Its Origin and Development, Yuvraj Krishan, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, 1996 p. 26
- ^ The Buddha Image: Its Origin and Development, Yuvraj Krishan, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, 1996 p. 1ff
- ^ The Grandeur of Gandhara: The Ancient Buddhist Civilization of the Swat, Peshawar, Kabul and Indus Valleys Rafi-us Samad, Algora Publishing, 2011 p. 23
- ^ a b Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Cambridge University Press for the Royal Asiatic Society. 1851. pp. 108–109.
- ^ Wright, Colin. "'Miscellaneous Series. Plate.12. Juma Masjid, Chanderi'. Maisey in a top-hat sketching in the foreground". www.bl.uk.
- ^ John Marshall, "An Historical and Artistic Description of Sanchi", from A Guide to Sanchi, Calcutta: Superintendent, Government Printing (1918). pp. 7-29 on line, Project South Asia. Archived 10 February 2009 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Percy Brown, Indian Architecture, 1955
- ^ Brekke, Torkel, Bones of Contention: Buddhist Relics, Nationalism and the Politics of Archaeology, Numen, Volume 54, Number 3, 2007, pp. 270-303(34)
- ^ "Ceylon Allowed To Keep Sanchi Relics Till May 8", Indian Express – 28 Apr 1947.
- ^ BUDDHA DISCIPLES WILL BE REBURIED; Relics of Followers of Ancient Leader to Be Reinterred at Rites in India Saturday, THE NEW YORK TIMES, 25 November 1952
- ^ Sariputta and Moggallana in the Golden Land: The Relics of the Buddha's Chief Disciples at the Kaba Aye Pagoda, Jack Daulton, Journal of Burma Studies, Volume 4, 1999 pp. 101-128
- ^ British Museum collection
- ^ Salomon, Richard (1998). Indian Epigraphy: A Guide to the Study of Inscriptions in Sanskrit, Prakrit, and the other Indo-Aryan Languages. Oxford University Press. p. 207. ISBN 9780195356663.
- ^ Indian Epigraphy : A Guide to the Study of Inscriptions in Sanskrit, Prakrit, and the other Indo-Aryan Languages, Richard Salomon, Oxford University Press, 1998
- ^ Ashoka: The Search for India's Lost Emperor, Charles Allen, Little, Brown Book Group Limited, 2012
- ^ A study of inscribed reliefs within the context of donative inscriptions at Sanchi, Author: Milligan, Matthew David, Thesis, p. 77
Literature
- Dehejia, Vidya. (1992). Collective and Popular Bases of Early Buddhist Patronage: Sacred Monuments, 100 BC-AD 250. In B. Stoler Miller (ed.) The Powers of Art. Oxford University Press: Oxford. ISBN 0-19-562842-X.
- Dehejia, Vidya. (1997). Indian Art. Phaidon: London. ISBN 0-7148-3496-3
- Harle, J.C., The Art and Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent, 2nd edn. 1994, Yale University Press Pelican History of Art, ISBN 0300062176
- Marshall, Sir John, A Guide to Sanchi, 1918, Indian Government, Calcutta
- Michell, George (1988), The Hindu Temple: An Introduction to its Meaning and Forms, 1977, University of Chicago Press, ISBN 978-0-226-53230-1
- Michell, George (1990), The Penguin Guide to the Monuments of India, Volume 1: Buddhist, Jain, Hindu, 1990, Penguin Books, ISBN 0140081445
- Mitra, Debala. (1971). Buddhist Monuments. Sahitya Samsad: Calcutta. ISBN 0-89684-490-0
- Rowland, Benjamin, The Art and Architecture of India: Buddhist, Hindu, Jain, 1967 (3rd edn.), Pelican History of Art, Penguin, ISBN 0140561021
- Life in Sanchi sculpture by A. L Srivastava( Book )
External links
Media related to Buddhist monuments at Sanchi at Wikimedia Commons- Source Documents and Texts in South Asian Studies
- Sanchi.org
- Sanchi Stupa — The World Heritage Site
- "Sanchi (Madhya Pradesh)", Jacques-Edouard Berger Foundation, World Art Treasures
- Monuments at Sanchi (UNESCO World Heritage)
- Google Street View tour of Sanchi
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Sanchi
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