커머셜 크루 프로그램

Commercial Crew Program
커머셜 크루 프로그램
Two streaks, one red and one blue, streaming up to a star surrounded by a depiction of an orbiting object
2014년 이후 로고
프로그램개요
나라미국
조직
목적ISS 승무원 수송
상황진행중
프로그램이력
지속2011년~현재
퍼스트 플라이트
성공을6
런칭 사이트
차량정보
승무원 차량
발사 차량
시리즈의 일부
미국 우주 계획
인간 우주 비행 계획
로봇 우주 비행 프로그램
NASA 우주비행사단
스페이스포트
이스턴 레인지
우주발사체
국가안보공간
시민공간
상업우주산업
크루 드래곤(왼쪽)과 스타라이너(오른쪽)가 각각의 임무를 수행하며 ISS에 접근하고 있습니다.

상업 승무원 프로그램(CCP)은 NASA와 계약에 따라 국제 우주 정거장(ISS)을 오가는 상업적으로 운영되는 승무원 운송 서비스를 제공하며, 국제 우주 정거장 프로그램의 탐사 간에 승무원 교대를 수행합니다.미국의 우주 제조업체 스페이스X는 크루 드래곤 우주선을 사용하여 2020년에 서비스를 제공하기 시작했고, NASA는 보잉 스타라이너 우주선이 2024년 안에 가동되면 보잉을 추가할 계획입니다.[1]NASA는 보잉사로부터 6개의 작전 임무와 스페이스X로부터 14개의 작전 임무를 계약하여 2030년까지 ISS를 위한 충분한 지원을 확보하고 있습니다.[2]

우주선은 공급업체가 소유하고 운영하며, NASA에 승무원 운송을 상업 서비스로 제공합니다.각각의 임무는 최대 4명의 우주비행사들을 국제우주정거장으로 보냅니다.작전 비행은 대략 6개월 동안 지속되는 임무에 대해 대략 6개월에 한 번 발생합니다.우주선은 임무를 수행하는 동안 ISS에 도킹된 상태로 유지되며, 임무는 보통 최소 며칠 정도 겹칩니다.2011년 우주왕복선의 퇴역과 2020년 첫 CCP 임무 사이에 NASA는 소유즈 프로그램에 의존하여 우주비행사들을 ISS로 이송했습니다.

크루 드래곤 우주선이 Falcon 9 Block 5 발사체에 실려 우주로 발사되고 캡슐은 플로리다 근처의 바다에서 스플래시다운을 통해 지구로 돌아옵니다.2020년 11월 16일, 스페이스X 크루-1이 발사되었습니다.보잉 스타라이너 우주선은 아틀라스 VN22 발사체 위에서 발사된 마지막 시험 비행을 마치고 참가할 예정입니다.스플래시 다운 대신, 스타라이너 캡슐이 미국 서부의 지정된 네 곳 중 한 곳에서 에어백을 들고 육지로 돌아올 예정입니다.

상용 승무원 프로그램의 개발은 NASA가 승무원 차량의 내부 개발에서 ISS 승무원 순환을 수행하는 것으로 전환하면서 2011년에 시작되었습니다.그 후 2년 동안 일련의 공개 경쟁에서 보잉, 블루 오리진, 시에라 네바다, 스페이스X는 ISS 승무원 운송 차량에 대한 제안서를 개발하기 위해 성공적으로 입찰했습니다.2014년 NASA는 보잉과 스페이스X에 각각의 시스템을 개발하고 ISS에 우주 비행사를 보내는 별도의 고정 가격 계약을 체결했습니다.각 계약은 시스템에 대한 인간 평가를 달성하기 위해 패드 중단, 무인 궤도 테스트, 발사 중단 및 승무 궤도 테스트의 네 가지 성공적인 시연이 필요했습니다.운영 임무는 당초 2017년에 시작될 예정이었으며, 두 제공자 간에 임무가 교대로 진행되었습니다.2020년 크루 드래곤 임무가 시작될 때까지 NASA는 소유스 MS-17까지 소유스 우주선의 추가 좌석을 구매해야 했습니다.크루 드래곤은 스타라이너가 빠르면 2024년까지 모든 임무를 수행합니다.[1]

배경

2004년 우주왕복선 컬럼비아호 참사 이후 조지 W. 부시 대통령에 의해 설립된 앨드리지 위원회는 최종 보고서에서 승무원 탐사 차량으로 달로 가는 승무원 비행을 요구했습니다.[3][4]2005년 NASA 승인법 이후, Constellation 프로그램이 수립되었는데,[5] 이 프로그램은 달 탐사 목표 외에 국제 우주 정거장(ISS)까지 승무원 순환 비행을 수행하는 오리온이라는 이름의 수정된 승무원 탐사 차량을 구상했습니다.[5][6][7]오리온은 ISS 승무원의 회전을 위해 특별히 설계된 궤도 우주 비행기를 대체했습니다.[8][9][10]2009년, 버락 오바마 대통령에 의해 임명된 어거스틴 위원회는 프로그램의 자금과 자원이 일정에 대한 상당한 지연과 30억 달러의 자금 증가 없이 목표를 실행하기에 불충분하다는 것을 알게 되었고,[11] 이는 NASA가 프로그램에 대한 대안을 고려하기 시작하도록 하였습니다.[12]콘스텔레이션 프로그램은 2010년에 공식적으로 취소되었는데,[13][14] NASA가 오리온을 지구 너머의 탐사를 위해 용도를 변경하고 2011년 우주왕복선 프로그램의 퇴역 이후 ISS 승무원의 회전과 지구 저궤도에서의 다른 승무원 활동을 위해 상업적 파트너들과 협력하면서입니다.[13][15][16]이 협정은 우주 비행사들을 ISS에 인도하기 위한 로스코스모스의 소유스 프로그램에 대한 나사의 의존도를 추가적으로 종식시킬 것입니다.[17][18]

발전

주요 기사:상용승무원 프로그램 개발

CCDev 시상식

A spaceplane sits on a runway
시에라 네바다의 드림 체이서, 비선택된 결승 진출자

2010년의 NASA 승인법은 기존의 상용 승무원 개발(CCDev) 프로그램을 3년에 걸쳐 확장하기 위해 미화 13억 달러를 할당했습니다.[13]2010년 이 프로그램의 첫 번째 대회는 미국 회수 및 재투자법의 일환으로 민간 부문에서 다양한 인간 우주 비행 기술 개발에 자금을 지원하는 것에 초점을 맞춘 반면,[19][20] 두 번째 대회인 CCDev 2는 우주 비행사들이 ISS로 왕복할 수 있는 우주선에 대한 제안에 초점을 맞췄습니다.[21][22]2011년 4월에 CCDev 2 기금을 위한 경쟁이 [22]마무리되었는데, 블루 오리진은 바이코닉 노즈콘 캡슐 컨셉을 개발하는데 미화 2,200만 달러를 받았고,[23] 스페이스X는 드래곤 우주선의 승무원 버전과 인간 등급 Falcon 9 발사체를 개발하는데 미화 7,500만 달러를 받았고,[24] 시에라 네바다 회사는 개발에 미화 8,000만 달러를 받았습니다.e Dream Chaser와 [25]보잉은 CST-100 Starliner 개발을 위해 미화 9,230만 달러를 받았습니다.[25]스페이스X는 이전에 나사의 상업적 재공급 서비스의 일환으로 드래곤 우주선과 함께 ISS 재공급 비행을 운영하기로 나사와 계약했습니다.[26][27]이 프로그램의 세 번째 라운드인 상용 승무원 통합 역량(CCiCap)은 [28]5년 이내에 ISS에 승무원 임무를 수행할 것에 대비하여 2014년 5월까지 21개월 동안 수상 제안서 개발을 재정적으로 지원하는 것을 목표로 하고 있습니다.[28][29][30]블루 오리진은 CCdev 1과 CCdev 2에서 수상했음에도 불구하고 CCiCap 경쟁에 반대하기로 결정했고 대신 주인인 제프 베이조스의 민간 투자에 의존하여 승무원이 탑승한 우주 비행에 대한 개발을 계속하기로 결정했습니다.[31][32]CCiCap 자금 지원 경쟁은 2012년 8월에 종료되었으며, 시에라 네바다의 드림 체이서에 2억 1,250만 달러, 스페이스X의 크루 드래곤에 4억 4,000만 달러, 보잉의 스타라이너에 4억 6,000만 달러가 배정되었습니다.[30][33][34]앨리언트 테크시스템즈의 통합 리버티 발사체와 우주선이 최종 후보에 올랐지만, 앨리언트 테크시스템즈의 제안서에 세부 사항이 없다는 우려 때문에 거절당했습니다.[35]

2012년 12월, 세 명의 CCiCap 수상자는 승무원 우주 비행에 대한 NASA의 안전 요구 사항을 충족시키기 위한 추가 테스트, 엔지니어링 표준 및 설계 분석을 가능하게 하기 위해 두 개의 "인증 제품 계약"(CPC) 중 첫 번째로 $1,000만 달러의 자금을 추가로 받았습니다.[17][36][37]두 번째 CPC 시리즈는 CCDev 프로그램의 마지막 단계인 상용 승무원 운송 능력(CCCap)으로 나타났습니다. 여기서 NASA는 공개 경쟁을 통해 ISS로 승무원 비행을 운영할 수 있는 운영자를 인증했습니다.[36][37]제안서 제출 창구는 2014년 1월 22일에 닫혔습니다.[36]시에라 네바다는 드림 체이서 우주선의 민간 자금 지원 궤도 시험 비행이 2016년 11월 1일에 이루어질 예정이라고 발표했습니다.[38][39]2014년 9월 16일, CCtCap은 스페이스X의 크루 드래곤과 보잉의 스타라이너가 유일한 승자가 되었고, 스페이스X는 26억 달러, 보잉은 42억 달러의 계약을 체결했습니다.[40][41]시에라 네바다주는 이에 대해 "출처 선정 과정에서의 심각한 질문과 불일치"를 이유로 정부 회계 책임청(GAO)에 항의서를 제출했습니다.[42][43]미국 연방청구법원은 상용 승무원 프로그램이 지연될 경우 ISS의 승무원 운영 우려를 이유로 [44][45]크루 드래곤과 스타라이너의 개발이 시위 기간 동안 진행될 수 있도록 허용하는 결정을 확정했습니다.[45][46]GAO는 2015년 1월 시에라 네바다의 항의를 거절하면서 GAO에 의해 수집된 증거가 NASA에 대한 시에라 네바다의 주장을 신뢰할 수 없다고 말했습니다. 시에라 네바다는 이 결정을 받아들였습니다.[47][48]그 회사는 CCtCap 결과에 따라 드림 체이서 작업을 하던 직원 90명을 해고했고, 그 우주선을 상업용 우주 비행을 위한 고용용 차량으로 용도를 변경했습니다.[49][50][51]드림 체이서의 화물 변형은 나중에 NASA에 의해 개발되고 선택되어 상용 재공급 서비스 2 계약에 따라 무인 재공급 임무를 ISS로 보낼 것입니다.[52][53]

선택후

크루 드래곤 C204(오른쪽), 이후 테스트 중 파괴

2016년 5월, 보잉은 스타라이너의 아틀라스 VN22 발사체와 관련된 문제로 인해 첫 승무원 비행이 2018년으로 연기될 것이라고 발표했습니다.[54][55][56]2016년 12월, 스페이스X는 크루 드래곤의 발사체인 팰컨 9의 발사대 폭발로 AMOS-6가 손실됨에 따라,[57][58] 그들의 첫 승무원 비행 또한 2018년으로 연기될 것이라고 발표했습니다.[58][59]GAO는 2018년 이후 미국 우주비행사를 위한 소유즈 프로그램에서 더 이상의 비행이 없는 상황에서 우려를 표명하고 2017년 2월 NASA에 추가 지연 시 승무원 교대 계획을 수립할 것을 권고했습니다.[60][61]러시아 우주 제조업체 에네르기아를 상대로 한 해상 발사 관련 소송이 타결됨에 따라 보잉은 나사가 보잉사로부터 구매한 소유즈 항공편에 최대 5인승 옵션을 받았습니다.[62][63]NASA는 2018년 8월 크루 드래곤과 스타라이너 차량을 조종하기로 선택된 우주 비행사들을 발표했고,[64][65][66] 두 달 후 2019년 날짜로 크루 드래곤과 스타라이너의 시범 임무를 시작했습니다.[67][68]2019년 3월 2일 발사된 스페이스X 데모-1은 크루 드래곤이 성공적으로 ISS에 도킹하여 발사 6일 만에 지구로 귀환하는 임무를 수행했습니다.[69][70][71]그러나 이 임무에 사용된 캡슐은 2019년 4월 슈퍼드라코 엔진의 정적 연소 테스트에서 실수로 파괴되어 [72][73][74]향후 크루 드래곤 비행의 발사가 더 지연되었습니다.[74][75]스타라이너의 중단 시스템 테스트 실패로 인해 연기되었던 보잉 궤도 비행 테스트와 보잉 승무원 비행 테스트는 2019년 초중반부터 2019년 말까지 설명 없이 더 추진되었습니다.[76][77][78][79][80]

보잉사는 2019년 11월 보잉 패드 중단 테스트를 실시했습니다.[81][82]NASA는 시스템이 두 개의 낙하산 아래에 설계된 대로 착륙했기 때문에 세 개의 낙하산 중 하나가 배치되지 못했음에도 불구하고 시험을 성공적으로 받아들였습니다.[83][84]보잉사는 2019년 12월 궤도 비행 테스트를 실시했고, 스타라이너 소프트웨어의 주요 오작동에 직면하여 ISS와의 도킹을 방해하고 임무를 중단했습니다.[85][86][87]궤도 비행 시험은 NASA에 의해 독립적인 검토 후 "가시성이 높은 근접 시험"으로 선언되었으며,[i][89][92] 2021년 7월 보잉이 CCDev의 추가 자금 지원 대신 비행 비용을 부담하는 두 번째 궤도 비행 시험(Boeing OFT-2)이 예정되어 있었습니다.[93][94][95]상용 승무원 프로그램의 진행에 대한 불확실성이 더욱 커지고 있는 가운데, NASA는 프로그램에서의 작전 임무가 더 지연될 경우에 대비하여 소유즈 MS-17 임무에 대한 좌석을 구입하여 익스페디션 64에 참가할 수 있도록 하였으며,[96][97] MS-17을 넘어 소유즈 좌석을 추가로 구입하는 것이 가능하다고 설명하고 있습니다.[96][97]2020년 1월, 스페이스X 비행 중단 테스트가 성공적으로 진행되어 2020년 5월, 우주 비행사 밥 벤켄과 더그 헐리를 ISS로 발사한 크루 드래곤 – 스페이스X 데모-2의 최종 승무원 시험 비행을 위한 발판을 마련했습니다.[98][99][100][100]스페이스X는 2020년 11월 16일 스페이스X 크루-1을 발사했습니다.2021년 5월 2일까지 ISS에 도킹했습니다.스페이스X 크루-2는 2021년 4월 23일에 발사되었으며, 스페이스X 크루-3 발사 이틀 전인 2021년 11월 9일에 착륙했습니다.2021년 8월 3일, 보잉 OFT-2가 발사 준비를 하고 있을 때, 캡슐의 추진 시스템에서 13개의 밸브에 문제가 발생했습니다.발사는 스크러빙되었고, 캡슐은 결국 공장으로 돌아왔습니다.문제에 대한 분석은 2021년 9월에 여전히 진행 중이었고 발사는 무기한 연기되었습니다.이 무인 시험인 보잉 궤도 비행 시험 2는 2022년 5월 19일에 발사되어 5월 25일에 성공적으로 착륙했습니다.[101][102]

상용 크루 차량 Crew Dragon과 Starliner는 동시에 하모니 모듈의 포트에 도킹했습니다.

2022년 2월 28일, NASA는 스페이스X에 3개의 추가 승무원 임무를 수여하여 스페이스X의 총 승무원 임무를 9개로 늘리고 총 계약 금액을 3,490,872,904 달러로 책정했다고 발표했습니다.[103]2022년 9월, NASA는 또 다른 추가적인 5개의 임무를 발표했는데, 이번에는 총 14개의 임무와 총 계약 금액이 49억 3천만 달러가 되었습니다.[2]

우주선

상업 승무원 프로그램은 스페이스X 승무원 드래곤을 이용해 우주 비행사들을 국제우주정거장으로 왕복시킵니다.[40][41][104]보잉 CST-100 스타라이너는 인간 등급을 받은 후 이 역할에 참여할 예정입니다.두 우주선 모두 자동화되어 있지만 비상시 지상에서 원격으로 조종하거나 터치스크린을 통해 승무원이 수동으로 조종할 수 있습니다.[105][106]두 우주선의 승무원 객실은 11 입방 미터 (390 입방 피트)의 압력을 가하며 [106][107][108]각각 최대 7명의 승무원을 태울 수 있도록 구성되어 있지만, 나사는 이 프로그램의 각 임무에 최대 4명의 승무원만 보낼 수 있습니다. 5번째 좌석을 차지할 수 있는 연장은 나사가 이용할 수 있습니다.[104][109]두 우주선 모두 ISS에 도킹된 우주 공간에서 210일까지 지속될 수 있습니다.[110][111][112]게다가, 이 우주선은 우주왕복선의 90분의 1 확률보다 덜 위험한, 치명적인 실패의 가능성이라는 NASA의 안전 기준을 충족하도록 설계되었습니다.[113]

우주선과 ISS에는 국제 도킹 시스템 표준(IDSS)을 구현하는 도킹 메커니즘이 있습니다.[114]NASA 도킹 시스템 구현은 Starliner와 ISS가 사용하고 크루 드래곤은 SpaceX가 개발한 호환 IDSS 구현을 사용 IDSS 구현을 사용합니다.[115][114]IDSS 부두는 1세대 Dragon과 같은 이전의 상용 궤도 운송 서비스 우주선이 사용했던 공통 접안 메커니즘 대신 사용됩니다.[116]

ISS에 동시에 도킹한 상용 승무원 프로그램 차량

크루 드래곤

주요 기사 : 스페이스X 드래곤 2

스페이스X의 크루 드래곤은 회사의 Dragon 2 클래스 우주선의 변형으로, 1세대 Dragon의 업그레이드된 버전입니다.[117][118]그것은 폭이 3.7 미터 (12 피트), 몸통이 없는 높이가 4.4 미터 (14 피트), 그리고 몸통이 있는 높이가 7.2 미터 (24 피트)입니다.[108][119]트렁크는 캡슐 재진입 전에 폐기되지만 승무원 객실은 재사용이 가능하도록 설계되었습니다.[120][120][121]SpaceX가 NASA를[122] 위해 모든 승무원 비행에 새로운 캡슐을 사용하기로 한 이전의 계획 이후에 둘 다 NASA 비행에 크루 드래곤 캡슐을 재사용하기로 동의했습니다.[123][124]2022년, 스페이스 엑스는 캡슐을 15번까지 재사용할 수 있다고 말했습니다.[125]크루 드래곤 우주선은 국제우주정거장에 도킹되지 않고 일주일까지 자유 비행을 할 수 있습니다.[126]각 크루 드래곤 캡슐에는 스페이스X의 슈퍼 드라코 엔진 8개로 구성된 발사 탈출 시스템이 장착되어 있으며, 이 시스템은 각각 71,000 뉴톤(16,000 파운드 힘)의 힘을 제공합니다.[127][128][129]이 엔진들은 원래 지구로 돌아올 때 추진 착륙을 수행하기 위한 것이었고, 첫 번째 시험 차량은 그러한 능력을 갖추기 위해 장착되었지만,[130][131] 이 계획들은 대서양이나 멕시코 만에 있는 플로리다 근처의 전통적인 스플래시다운 귀환을 위해 결국 포기되었습니다.[132][133]스페이스X의 CCtCap 계약에 따르면 크루 드래곤 비행기의 각 좌석은 처음 6번의 임무에서 미화 6천만 달러에서 6천7백만 달러 사이인 반면, NASA의 [134]OIG(Office of Inspector General)는 각 좌석의 액면가를 미화 5천5백만 달러로 추정했습니다.[135][136][137]첫 번째 계약 연장(미션 7, 8, 9)의 허가 비용은 2억 5,870만 달러(좌석당 6,460만 달러)이며, 두 번째 계약 연장(미션 10~14)의 허가 비용은 2억 8,800만 달러(좌석당 7,200만 달러)입니다.[2]

스타라이너

주요 기사:보잉 스타라이너

보잉사의 CST-100 스타라이너 – "승무원 우주 수송"의 약자인 "CST" – 직경이 4.6 미터(15 피트), 높이가 5.1 미터(17 피트)입니다.[106][107][138]스타라이너의 승무원 모듈은 최대 10회까지 재사용이 가능하며, 서비스 모듈은 각 비행 중에 사용됩니다.[115][139]스타라이너는 궤도기동, 자세제어, 반응제어, 발사탈출 등을 위해 에어로젯 로켓다인이 제작한 다양한 엔진을 활용하고 있습니다.[140]우주선 승무원 모듈에 있는 8개의 반응 제어 엔진과 우주선 서비스 모듈에 있는 28개의 반응 제어 엔진은 각각 380뉴턴(85파운드 힘)과 445뉴턴(100파운드 힘)을 제공합니다.[141][142]또한 서비스 모듈에 장착된 20개의 맞춤형 궤도 조작 및 자세 제어(OMAC) 엔진은 각각 6,700 뉴톤(1,500 파운드 힘)의 추력을 제공하며,[140][141][142] 4개의 RS-88 엔진은 발사 중단 시나리오에서 각각 178,000 뉴톤(40,000 파운드 힘)의 추력을 제공합니다.[129][140][143]발사 중단 없이 명목상 비행을 하는 동안 스타라이너는 RS-88 엔진에 저장된 미사용 연료를 사용하여 발사 중에 센타우르 상단에서 분리된 후 궤도 삽입 연소를 수행할 수 있습니다.[141]일단 우주에 있으면, 스타라이너 우주선은 자유 비행으로 60시간까지 생존할 수 있습니다.[112]크루 드래곤과 달리 스타라이너는 에어백을 이용해 차량이 지면에 충격을 완화하는 방식으로 바다가 아닌 육지에서 지구로 돌아올 수 있도록 설계됐습니다.[144][145]유타주 더그웨이 프로빙 그라운드, 캘리포니아주 에드워즈 공군기지, 뉴멕시코주 화이트샌즈 미사일 사거리, 애리조나주 윌콕스 플레이아 등 미국 서부 인접 4곳은 스타라이너 우주선이 귀환할 수 있는 착륙장 역할을 하지만,[145] 비상시에는 스플래시다운 귀환도 가능합니다.[146]보잉사의 CCtCap 계약은 CST-100 항공편의 각 좌석의 가격을 미화 9,900만 달러로 책정하고 있으며,[134] NASA의 OIG는 각 좌석의 액면가를 미화 9,000만 달러로 추정하고 있습니다.[135][136][137]

미션스

국제우주정거장으로의 나사 임무는 평균 6개월마다 시작됩니다.원래 계약의 일환으로 보잉과 스페이스X는 각각 최대 6회의 운항 항공편을 계약했습니다.[147][148]NASA는 나중에 스타라이너가 추가로 지연될 경우의 대비책으로 스페이스X와 8회 추가 비행을 계약하고 2030년까지 ISS에 서비스를 보장했습니다.[2]

크루 드래곤 미션

주요 기사 : 스페이스X 드래곤 2

이 프로그램의 첫 번째 작전 비행인 스페이스X의 크루-1 임무는 2020년 11월, 빅터 글로버, 마이크 홉킨스, 소이치 노구치, 섀넌 워커를 레질리언스에 탑승시켜 ISS로 운반했습니다.[149][150][151][152][153]복원력은 원래 Crew-2에 사용될 계획이었으나 테스트 중에 C204가 실수로 파괴되어 일정이 변경된 후 재할당되었습니다.[152]NASA 우주비행사들이 크루 드래곤이나 스타라이너 비행에 대한 임무를 부여받았지만, JAXA 우주비행사인 노구치는 첫 번째 작전 임무를 수행할 우주선에 대한 임무를 부여받을 수 있었습니다.[154]소유즈 MS-16 기간 동안 크리스 캐시디가 ISS에 도착함에 따라, 레질리언스호에 탑승한 우주비행사들의 도착은 ISS의 미국 궤도 부문이 4명의 승무원으로 완전히 구성된 우주왕복선 프로그램 이후 처음 있는 일입니다.[148][155]2021년 4월에 발사된 크루-2는 팰컨 9 1단 부스터와 처음으로 개조된 크루 드래곤을 사용하여 발사되었습니다.[153][156][157]이 임무는 엔데버호에 셰인 킴브로, 메간 맥아더, 아키히코 호시데, 토마스 페스케를 실어 날랐습니다.[158]2021년 11월에 발사된 크루-3는 토마스 마시번, 라자 차리, 마티아스 마우러, 카일라 배런을 ISS로 운반했으며,[159][160][161] 크루-4는 2022년 4월에 젤 린드그렌, 밥 하인스, 사만다 크리스토포레티, 제시카 왓킨스를 발사했습니다.[162][163][164][165]미국 우주비행사 조쉬 카사다, 니콜 아우나푸 만, JAXA 우주비행사 코이치 와카타는 스타라이너 프로그램이 지연된 후 승무원-5 임무에 다시 배정되었습니다.[166][167]Crew-5의 네 번째 우주 비행사는 러시아 우주 비행사 Anna Kikina에 의해 채워지고, 따라서 소유즈-드래곤 우주 비행사 교환 시스템의 일부가 됩니다. 즉, NASA 우주 비행사와 로스코스모스 우주 비행사가 각각의 승무원 순환 임무를 수행하도록 하는 것입니다.이를 통해 소유즈 또는 상업용 승무원 차량이 장시간 지상에 있을 경우 양국 모두 정거장에 존재하고 별도의 시스템을 유지할 수 있게 됩니다.[168]

2021년 12월 3일, NASA는 우주 정거장에 대한 미국의 중단 없는 접근 능력을 유지하기 위해 스페이스X로부터 최대 3회의 비행을 추가로 확보할 것임을 분명히 했습니다.[169]그 배경은 스페이스X가 보잉사의 첫 번째 작전 비행 이전인 2023년 초에 여섯 번째 비행을 시작할 가능성이 있었고,[170] NASA는 스페이스X만이 필요한 능력을 가지고 있다고 결론지었기 때문입니다.

나사와 로스코스모스는 각각 3편의 항공편에 대한 연간 좌석 교환 협정에 합의했습니다.2022년, 2023년, 2024년에는 러시아 우주비행사가 1년에 한 번 크루 드래곤 비행을 하고 미국 우주비행사는 1년에 한 번 소유즈 비행을 하게 됩니다.이 협정은 ISS가 한 가지 또는 다른 종류의 우주선이 지상에 있더라도 필수적인 서비스를 운영할 수 있는 최소한 한 명의 승무원을 확보하도록 보장합니다.[171]

2022년 8월 31일, NASA는 스페이스X에 계약된 크루 드래곤의 총 비행 횟수를 14회로 늘린 5회 추가 비행을 수여했습니다.추가 항공편은 2030년까지 운행될 예정입니다.[172]

보잉 스타라이너 미션

2023년 8월 현재 첫 운항 비행은 2024년 말 이전에 이루어질 계획입니다.그것은 승무원 비행 시험의 성공적인 완료에 달려 있습니다.

NASA는 스타라이너가 충분한 항공편을 확보한 후 로스코스모스와의 좌석 교환 협정을 스타라이너 항공편까지 확대하기를 바라고 있습니다.[173]

작전중인 CCP

미션 패치 출시일자 발사차량[a] 우주선[b] 지속
크루
Mission insignia for SpaceX Crew-1
 2020년11월15일 Falcon 9 Block 5 (B1061.1) 크루 드래곤 (C207.1 복원력) 167d, 6h, 29m
Mission insignia for SpaceX Crew-2
 2021년4월23일 Falcon 9 Block 5 (B1061.2) 크루 드래곤 (C206.2 엔데버) ( 199d,17h,44m
Mission insignia for SpaceX Crew-3
 2021년11월11일[159] Falcon 9 Block 5 (B1067.2) ( 크루드래곤 (C210.1 내구성) 176d, 2h, 39m
Mission insignia for SpaceX Crew-4
 2022년4월27일 Falcon 9 Block 5 (B1067.4) 크루 드래곤 (C211.1 프리덤) 170d, 13h, 3m
Mission insignia for SpaceX Crew-5
 2022년10월5일[174] Falcon 9 Block 5 (B1077.1) 크루 드래곤 (C210.2 내구성) ( 157d, 10h, 1m
Mission insignia for SpaceX Crew-6
 2023년3월2일[176] Falcon 9 Block 5 (B1078.1) 크루 드래곤 (C206.4 엔데버) ( 185d, 22h, 42m
Mission insignia for SpaceX Crew-7
 2023년8월26일[178] Falcon 9 Block 5 (B1081.1) 크루 드래곤 (C210.3 내구성) ( ISS에 도킹됨
Mission insignia for SpaceX Crew-8
 NET 2024년[180] 2월 팰컨 9 블록 5 크루 드래곤 (C206.5 엔데버) ( 계획된
 NET 2024년 9월 아틀라스 VN22 보잉 스타라이너 (S2.2) ( 계획된

타임라인

CCP 우주선 임무는 보통 두 개가 동시에 도킹되는 짧은 간격으로 겹칩니다.Crew-2는 Crew-3 발사가 예기치 않게 지연되었기 때문에 Crew-3와 겹치지 않았습니다.

참고 항목

참고문헌

원천

  1. Reichhardt, Tony (August 2018). "Astronauts, Your Ride's Here!". Air & Space/Smithsonian. Archived from the original on 21 August 2019. Retrieved 21 August 2019.
  2. Howell, Elizabeth (8 August 2018). "How Boeing's Commercial CST-100 Starliner Spacecraft Works". Space.com. Archived from the original on 26 May 2020. Retrieved 26 May 2020.
  3. Wall, Mike (3 August 2018). "Crew Dragon and Starliner: A Look at the Upcoming Astronaut Taxis". Space.com. Archived from the original on 21 August 2019. Retrieved 21 August 2019.

인용문

  1. ^ a b Foust, Jeff (3 November 2022). "First Starliner crewed flight further delayed". Space News. Retrieved 7 January 2023.
  2. ^ a b c d Foust, Jeff (1 September 2022). ""NASA and SpaceX finalize extension of commercial crew contract"". spacenews.com. Retrieved 1 October 2022.
  3. ^ King, John; O'Brien, Miles (15 January 2004). "Bush unveils vision for moon and beyond". CNN. Archived from the original on 8 March 2019. Retrieved 8 March 2019. The initial spurt of new funding will be used to begin work on what a "crew exploration vehicle," which O'Keefe said will "look totally different" from the space shuttle. [...] Lunar missions will begin between 2015 and 2020.
  4. ^ Dinkin, Sam (25 October 2004). "Implementing the vision". The Space Review. Archived from the original on 8 March 2019. Retrieved 8 March 2019. Eleven companies have been selected "to conduct preliminary concept studies for human lunar exploration and the development of the crew exploration vehicle."
  5. ^ a b Neubek, Deborah J.; Rattigan, Jennifer L.; Stegemoeller, Charles; Thomas, L. Dale (20 May 2011). "Constellation program Lessons Learned; Volume I: Executive Summary" (PDF). NASA History Office. pp. 2–3. Archived (PDF) from the original on 8 March 2019. Retrieved 8 March 2019. NASA formed the Constellation Program in 2005 [...] The Initial Capability (IC) comprised elements necessary to service the ISS by 2015 with crew rotations: including the Orion Crew Exploration Vehicle, the Ares I Crew Launch Vehicle, and the supporting ground and mission infrastructure to enable these missions.
  6. ^ BBC News staff (23 August 2006). "Nasa names new spacecraft 'Orion'". BBC News. Archived from the original on 8 March 2019. Retrieved 8 March 2019. The vehicle will be capable of transporting cargo and up to six crew members to and from the International Space Station. It can carry four astronauts for lunar missions.
  7. ^ Malik, Tariq (19 September 2005). "NASA's New Moon Plans: 'Apollo on Steroids'". Space.com. Archived from the original on 8 March 2019. Retrieved 8 March 2019. The spacecraft, NASA's Crew Exploration Vehicle (CEV), could even carry six-astronaut crews to the International Space Station (ISS) or fly automated resupply shipments as needed, NASA chief Michael Griffin said.
  8. ^ Cowing, Keith L.; Sietzen, Frank Jr. (7 August 2005). "NASA's New Launch Systems May Include the Return of the Space Tug". SpaceRef. Archived from the original on 2 February 2013. Following the Columbia accident in February 2003, planning for the OSP was placed on hold. Eventually, the OSP would be superseded-or morphed into-the requirements for what eventually became the CEV.
  9. ^ Dinerman, Taylor (31 January 2005). "What do we do with the ISS?". The Space Review. Archived from the original on 8 March 2019. Retrieved 8 March 2019. The big question for the next NASA administrator will be whether he going to reverse the decision to delete the ISS service role from the Crew Exploration Vehicle's mission. [...] The CEV was sold at least partly on the basis that it would replace the planned Orbital Space Plane (OSP), which was supposed to be a true multipurpose manned spacecraft.
  10. ^ Marshall Space Flight Center (1 May 2003). "Fact sheet number: FS-2003-05-64-MSFC". National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Archived from the original on 4 August 2012. Retrieved 8 March 2019. Based largely on existing technologies, the Orbital Space Plane would provide safe, affordable access to the International Space Station. The Orbital Space Plane will be able to support a Space Station crew rotation of four to six months.
  11. ^ Sunseri, Gina (22 October 2009). "Augustine Commission: NASA's Plans 'Unsustainable'". ABC News. Archived from the original on 26 October 2009. Retrieved 8 March 2019. To get to the moon and then eventually go on to Mars will take much more money and technology than the U.S. space program has now, according to a report released today by an independent panel convened, at White House request [...] Keep Ares and Orion going -- but recognize they probably won't be ready for regular use until 2017. [...] To do all this, the panel said NASA would need substantially more funding -- an additional $3 billion annually starting next year.
  12. ^ Atkinson, Nancy (21 October 2009). "NASA Administrator Orders Study of Heavy Lift Alternatives". Universe Today. Archived from the original on 8 March 2019. Retrieved 8 March 2019. Looking at alternatives to the Constellation program is an apparent reaction to the final Augustine Commission report, which will be made public on Thursday.
  13. ^ a b c Amos, Jonathan (30 September 2010). "US politicians cement a new philosophy for Nasa". BBC News. Archived from the original on 8 March 2019. Retrieved 8 March 2019. It authorises $1.3bn over the next three years for commercial companies to begin taxiing crew to the International Space Station (ISS). [...] It brings to an end the Bush-era Constellation programme which had set the agency the task of going back to the Moon.
  14. ^ Malik, Tariq (6 April 2010). "NASA's New Asteroid Mission Could Save the Planet". Space.com. Archived from the original on 8 March 2019. Retrieved 8 March 2019. He pledged to revive the Orion spacecraft, initially cancelled along the rest of NASA's Constellation program building new rockets and spacecraft. Now [it will play a role] in deep space missions, Obama said.
  15. ^ Matson, John (1 February 2010). "Phased Out: Obama's NASA Budget Would Cancel Constellation Moon Program, Privatize Manned Launches". Scientific American. Archived from the original on 8 March 2019. Retrieved 8 March 2019. Obama's blueprint for NASA would cancel the Constellation program, the family of rockets and hardware now in development to replace the aging space shuttle, and would call instead on commercial vendors to fly astronauts to orbit.
  16. ^ Malik, Tariq (1 February 2010). "Obama Budget Scraps NASA Moon Plan for '21st Century Space Program'". Space.com. Archived from the original on 8 March 2019. Retrieved 8 March 2019. ...and offers $6 billion over five years to support commercially built spaceships to launch NASA astronauts into space.
  17. ^ a b Perrotto, Trent; Thomas, Candrea (10 December 2012). "NASA Awards Contracts In Next Step Toward Safely Launching American Astronauts From U.S. Soil". National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Archived from the original on 8 March 2019. Retrieved 8 March 2019. ...the certification products contracts (CPC) [will ensure] crew transportation systems will meet agency safety requirements and standards to launch American astronauts to the International Space Station from the United States, ending the agency's reliance on Russia for these transportation services. [...] This includes data that will result in developing engineering standards, tests and analyses of the crew transportation systems design.
  18. ^ Reichhardt 2018, "보잉사의 스타라이너와 스페이스X사의 크루 드래곤이라는 한 쌍의 개인 소유 우주선이 앞으로 몇 달 안에 첫 선을 보일 예정입니다." 국제 우주 정거장을 오가는 우주 비행사들을 실어 나르기 위해 소유즈 우주선에 의존했던 NASA의 우주왕복 후 의존을 종식시켰습니다."
  19. ^ Byerly, Josh; Edwards, Ashley; Hautaluoma, Grey (1 February 2010). "NASA Selects Commercial Firms to Begin Development of Crew Transportation Concepts and Technology Demonstrations for Human Spaceflight Using Recovery Act Funds". National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Archived from the original on 12 May 2013. Retrieved 8 March 2019. Through an open competition for funds from the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009, NASA has awarded Space Act Agreements...
  20. ^ Foust, Jeff (4 February 2011). "CCDev awardees one year later: where are they now?". NewSpace Journal. Archived from the original on 5 June 2013. Retrieved 8 March 2019. NASA announced a set of Commercial Crew Development (CCDev) awards, using $50 million they agency got as part of a larger grant of stimulus funding.
  21. ^ Rhian, Jason (20 December 2010). "Numerous Companies Propose Possible 'Space Taxis'". Universe Today. Archived from the original on 8 March 2019. Retrieved 8 March 2019. With NASA's Commercial Crew Development program, or CCDev 2, and the encouragement of commercial space firms to produce their own vehicles, the number of potential 'space-taxis' has swelled, with virtually every established and up-and-coming space company either producing – or proposing one.
  22. ^ a b Moskowitz, Clara (28 April 2011). "Four Companies at Forefront of Commercial Space Race". Space.com. Archived from the original on 8 March 2019. Retrieved 8 March 2019. Four private companies are the leaders in the effort to build commercial spaceships to carry astronauts to low-Earth orbit and the International Space Station after the space shuttles retire. NASA recently handed out the second wave of contracts in its Commercial Crew Development program...
  23. ^ Bergin, Chris (18 April 2011). "Four companies win big money via NASA's CCDEV-2 awards". NASASpaceFlight.com. Archived from the original on 8 March 2019. Retrieved 8 March 2019. Blue Origin's $22m award is for their their [sic] biconic-shape capsule, of which very little is currently in the public domain.
  24. ^ Sauser, Brittany (22 April 2011). "Private Spacecrafts to Carry Humans Get NASA Funding". MIT Technology Review. Archived from the original on 19 December 2019. Retrieved 8 March 2019. Space Exploration Technologies (SpaceX), which currently has a contract to carry cargo to the International Space Station, will receive $75 million to make its Falcon 9 rocket and Dragon space capsule ready for humans...
  25. ^ a b Clark, Stephen (25 April 2011). "Four firms plan to get the most out of NASA investment". Spaceflight Now. Archived from the original on 8 March 2019. Retrieved 8 March 2019. Boeing received the largest Commercial Crew Development award, an agreement valued at $92.3 million, to finish the preliminary design of the CST-100 capsule [...] Sierra Nevada received $20 million in the first CCDev competition in February 2010, using that funding to develop manufacturing tooling, fire a Dream Chaser maneuvering engine and deliver parts of a structural mock-up of the spacecraft.
  26. ^ Bergin, Chris; Smith, Ron (1 October 2012). "Orbital's Antares closing in on debut launch following pad arrival". NASASpaceFlight.com. Archived from the original on 8 March 2019. Retrieved 8 March 2019. Orbital and SpaceX won a combined 3.5 billion dollars Commercial Resupply Services (CRS) contract back in 2008...
  27. ^ Tann, Nick (8 October 2012). "SpaceX successfully launches first International Space Station re-supply mission". The Baltimore Sun. Archived from the original on 8 March 2019. Retrieved 8 March 2019. Last night, SpaceX launched more than 1,000 pounds of supplies bound for the International Space Station on the first of 12 missions in its 1.6 billion USD contract with NASA.
  28. ^ a b Atkinson, Nancy (3 August 2012). "NASA Announces Winners in Commercial Crew Funding; Which Company Will Get to Space First?". Universe Today. Archived from the original on 8 March 2019. Retrieved 8 March 2019. NASA announced today the winners of the third round of commercial crew development funding, called the Commercial Crew Integrated Capability (CCiCap). [...] NASA said these awards will enable a launch of astronauts from U.S. soil in the next five years. [...] each company negotiated how much work they could get done in the 21-month period that this award covers.
  29. ^ Boyle, Alan (3 August 2012). "NASA announces $1.1 billion in support for a trio of spaceships". NBC News. Archived from the original on 8 March 2019. Retrieved 8 March 2019. NASA has committed $1.1 billion over the next 21 months to support spaceship development efforts by the Boeing Co., SpaceX and Sierra Nevada Corp., with the aim of having American astronauts flying once more on American spacecraft within five years.
  30. ^ a b Hardwood, William (3 August 2012). "NASA awards manned-spacecraft contracts". CNET. Archived from the original on 8 March 2019. Retrieved 8 March 2019. SpaceX was awarded a $440 million contract [...] Boeing won a contract valued at $460 million [...] Nevada was awarded $212.5 million [...] The CCiCap contracts will run between now and May 31, 2014
  31. ^ Malik, Tariq (3 August 2012). "NASA awards $1.1 billion to develop three commercial space taxis". collectSPACE. Archived from the original on 8 March 2019. Retrieved 8 March 2019. Also not included in this latest round of funding was Blue Origin of Kent., Wash., a company owned by billionaire Amazon.com founder Jeff Bezos that is developing private spacecraft for suborbital and orbital flights. The company did receive a NASA funding award in 2011 for its orbital crew vehicle, but wasn't among the seven vying for a spot in the CCiCap round, NASA officials said.
  32. ^ Foust, Jeff (18 December 2016). "Bezos Investment in Blue Origin Exceeds $500 Million". Space News. Archived from the original on 18 December 2016. Retrieved 8 March 2019. "We got $25 million from the NASA commercial crew program, and that represents less than 5 percent of what our founder has put into the company," Alexander said. That would mean Bezos' investment in Blue Origin is at least $500 million.
  33. ^ Bergin, Chris (3 August 2012). "NASA CCiCAP funding for SpaceX, Boeing and SNC's crew vehicles". NASASpaceFlight.com. Archived from the original on 8 March 2019. Retrieved 8 March 2019. In the end, Associate Administrator for Human Exploration and Operations Directorate William Gerstenmaier opted to award Boeing with $460m, SpaceX with $440 and SNC with $212.5m.
  34. ^ Malik, Tariq (3 August 2012). "NASA Awards $1.1 Billion in Support for 3 Private Space Taxis". Space.com. Archived from the original on 8 March 2019. Retrieved 8 March 2019. As part of the new agreements, Sierra Nevada will receive $212.5 million, SpaceX will receive $440 million, and Boeing will receive $460 million.
  35. ^ Gerstenmaier, William H. (10 September 2012). "Selection Statement For Commercial Crew Integrated Capability". National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Archived from the original on 10 September 2012. Retrieved 8 March 2019. Four proposals passed the Acceptability Screening and were evaluated by the full PEP [...] ATK Aerospace Systems (ATK)
  36. ^ a b c Boyle, Alan (19 November 2013). "NASA outlines the final steps in plan for next manned spaceships". NBC News. Archived from the original on 8 March 2019. Retrieved 8 March 2019. NASA expects the final phase of the competition — known as the Commercial Crew Transport Capability program, or CCtCAP — to result in a fleet of commercial spacecraft that are certified to transport crew by 2017. [...] Those same three companies have already been granted about $10 million each for Phase 1 of the CCtCAP certification process, which focuses on flight safety and performance requirements. [...] NASA said applications for Phase 2 funding should be submitted by Jan. 22.
  37. ^ a b Grondin, Yves-A. (5 August 2013). "NASA Outlines its Plans for Commercial Crew Certification". NASASpaceFlight.com. Archived from the original on 8 March 2019. Retrieved 8 March 2019. ...NASA outlined the next phase of its strategy to enable the certification of commercial crew transportation systems to and from the International Space Station (ISS). [...] Phase 1 of the certification strategy, the Certification Products Contract (CPC) phase, was awarded last December to SpaceX, SNC and Boeing for amounts that did not exceed $10 million per company.
  38. ^ Rutkin, Aviva (27 January 2014). "Mini space shuttle gears up to chase astronaut dreams". New Scientist. Archived from the original on 8 March 2019. Retrieved 8 March 2019. Engineers at Sierra Nevada Corporation have announced that the Dream Chaser will make its first orbital flight on 1 November 2016. The Dream Chaser will launch attached to an Atlas V rocket...
  39. ^ Atkinson, Nancy (23 January 2014). "Sierra Nevada Dreamchaser Will Launch on First Orbital Flight Test in November 2016". Universe Today. Archived from the original on 8 March 2019. Retrieved 8 March 2019. "Today we're very proud to announce that we have now formally negotiated our orbital spaceflight," said Mark Sirangelo, the head of Sierra Nevada Space Systems. "We have acquired an Atlas V rocket and established a launch date of November 1, 2016...
  40. ^ a b Associated Press (17 September 2014). "SpaceX, Boeing land NASA contracts to carry astronauts to space". The Japan Times. Archived from the original on 21 May 2019. Retrieved 21 May 2019. On Tuesday, the space agency picked Boeing and SpaceX to transport astronauts to the International Space Station [...] NASA will pay Boeing $4.2 billion and SpaceX $2.6 billion to certify, test and fly their crew capsules.
  41. ^ a b Wall, Mike (17 September 2014). "NASA Picks SpaceX and Boeing to Fly U.S. Astronauts on Private Spaceships". Scientific American. Archived from the original on 21 May 2019. Retrieved 21 May 2019. SpaceX and Boeing are splitting NASA's $6.8 billion Commercial Crew Transportation Capability award, or CCtCap [...] SpaceX will get $2.6 billion and Boeing will receive $4.2 billion, officials said.
  42. ^ Dean, James (26 September 2014). "Sierra Nevada files protest over NASA crew contract". Florida Today. Archived from the original on 21 May 2019. Retrieved 21 May 2019. Sierra Nevada Corp. has protested NASA's award of contracts worth up to $6.8 billion to Boeing and SpaceX to fly astronauts to the International Space Station. The U.S. Government Accountability Office must rule on the legal challenge by Jan. 5. [...] Sierra Nevada cited "serious questions and inconsistencies in the source selection process."
  43. ^ Keeney, Laura (3 October 2014). "So Sierra Nevada protested NASA space-taxi contract, but what's next?". The Denver Post. Archived from the original on 21 May 2019. Retrieved 21 May 2019. Space Systems filed the formal protest with the U.S. Government Accountability Office on Sept. 26 over rejection of its bid for NASA's commercial crew contract to shuttle astronauts to the space station.
  44. ^ Rhian, Jason (23 October 2014). "Judge allows NASA to move forward on production of Commercial Crew spacecraft". Spaceflight Insider. Archived from the original on 21 May 2019. Retrieved 21 May 2019. Judge Marian Blank Horn of the United States Court of Federal Claims has cleared the way for NASA to proceed with its plans to have Boeing and SpaceX develop their spacecraft under the Commercial Crew transportation Capability (CCtCap).
  45. ^ a b Dean, James (22 October 2014). "Judge: NASA can move forward with Boeing, SpaceX". USA Today. Archived from the original on 21 May 2019. Retrieved 21 May 2019. A judge Tuesday allowed NASA to move forward with new contracts to develop private space taxis despite a legal challenge to the deals worth up to $6.8 billion. [...] NASA claimed it "best serves the United States" to enable the commercial crew systems as soon as possible, and that delays to flights planned by 2017 would put the International Space Station at risk.
  46. ^ Norris, Guy (11 October 2014). "Why NASA Rejected Sierra Nevada's Commercial Crew Vehicle". Aviation Week & Space Technology. Archived from the original on 27 October 2014. Retrieved 21 May 2019. NASA issued a stop-work order to Boeing and SpaceX on Oct 2, only to rescind it a week later on the grounds that a delay to development of the transportation service, "poses risks to the ISS crew, jeopardizes continued operation of the ISS, would delay meeting critical crew size requirements, and may result in the U.S. failing to perform the commitments it made in its international agreements."
  47. ^ Foust, Jeff (5 January 2015). "GAO Denies Sierra Nevada Protest of Commercial Crew Contract". SpaceNews. Archived from the original on 21 May 2019. Retrieved 21 May 2019. "Based on our review of the issues, we concluded that these arguments were not supported by the evaluation record or by the terms of the solicitation," Smith said in the GAO statement. Sierra Nevada, in a statement issued Jan. 5, accepted the decision by the GAO...
  48. ^ Dean, James (5 January 2015). "Sierra Nevada loses Commercial Crew contract protest". Florida Today. Archived from the original on 21 May 2019. Retrieved 21 May 2019. GAO disagreed with Sierra Nevada's arguments about NASA's evaluation [...] Sierra Nevada also claimed NASA did not adequately review the realism of SpaceX's low bid and its financial resources, among several other issues the GAO concluded "were not supported by the evaluation record or by the terms of the solicitation."
  49. ^ Rhian, Jason (26 September 2014). "SNC lays off staff, files protest over NASA CCP selections, mulls Dream Chaser's future – Update". Spaceflight Insider. Archived from the original on 21 May 2019. Retrieved 21 May 2019. Sierra Nevada Corporation (SNC) has laid off employees who were working on the company's offering under NASA's Commercial Crew Program (CCP), the Dream Chaser space plane. SNC has also stated that it will continue to develop the spacecraft for possible use with other nations' human-rated space programs...
  50. ^ SpaceRef staff (25 September 2014). "Sierra Nevada Dream Chaser Program to Continue". SpaceRef Business. Archived from the original on 21 May 2019. Retrieved 21 May 2019. Sierra Nevada's Mark Sirangelo told the Denver Post the companies plans to go forward with development of the spacecraft and bid on future contracts. The news companies on the heals [sic] of Sierra Nevada laying off 90 people from the Dream Chaser program.
  51. ^ Foust, Jeff (25 September 2014). "Sierra Nevada Lays Off Dream Chaser Staff". SpaceNews. Archived from the original on 21 May 2019. Retrieved 21 May 2019. After losing a NASA commercial crew competition earlier this month, Sierra Nevada Corp. (SNC) has laid off about 100 employees who had been working on its Dream Chaser vehicle, the company confirmed Sept. 24.
  52. ^ Davenport, Christian; Fung, Brian (14 January 2016). "Sierra Nevada Corp. joins SpaceX and Orbital ATK in winning NASA resupply contracts". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 21 May 2019. Retrieved 21 May 2019. The nation's space agency selected three commercial companies for the next round of missions to resupply the International Space Station, giving a vote of confidence to incumbents SpaceX and Orbital ATK and choosing a new player, Sierra Nevada Corp.
  53. ^ Calandrelli, Emily (14 January 2016). "NASA Adds Sierra Nevada's Dream Chaser To ISS Supply Vehicles". TechCrunch. Archived from the original on 1 February 2016. Retrieved 21 May 2019. The winners, Orbital ATK, SpaceX, and the newcomer Sierra Nevada Corporation, will be responsible for providing new cargo, disposing of unneeded cargo, and safely bringing back research samples from the International Space Station (ISS).
  54. ^ Foust, Jeff (21 January 2015). "NASA Details Why Boeing, SpaceX Won Commercial Crew". SpaceNews. Archived from the original on 21 May 2019. Retrieved 21 May 2019. SpaceX, though, planned to complete certification earlier than either Boeing or Sierra Nevada, giving it more margin to achieve NASA's goal of certification by the end of 2017.
  55. ^ Vincent, James (12 May 2016). "Astronauts won't be flying to space in Boeing's Starliner until 2018". The Verge. Archived from the original on 21 May 2019. Retrieved 21 May 2019. Boeing's executive vice president Leanne Caret made the announcement, reports GeekWire, telling investors at a briefing: "We're working toward our first unmanned flight in 2017, followed by a manned astronaut flight in 2018."
  56. ^ Boyle, Alan (11 May 2016). "Boeing's Starliner schedule for sending astronauts into orbit slips to 2018". GeekWire. Archived from the original on 21 May 2019. Retrieved 21 May 2019. ...it's been working through challenges related to the mass of the spacecraft and aeroacoustic issues related to integration with its United Launch Alliance Atlas 5 launch vehicle. In a follow-up to Caret's comments, Boeing spokeswoman Rebecca Regan told GeekWire that those factors contributed to the schedule slip.
  57. ^ Boyle, Alan (12 December 2016). "NASA confirms delay in commercial crew flights to 2018, pushing the envelope". GeekWire. Archived from the original on 21 May 2019. Retrieved 21 May 2019. NASA has confirmed that the commercial space taxis being developed by SpaceX and the Boeing Co. will start carrying astronauts to the International Space Station no earlier than 2018...
  58. ^ a b Grush, Loren (12 December 2016). "SpaceX officially delays first crewed flight of its Dragon capsule for NASA". The Verge. Archived from the original on 21 May 2019. Retrieved 21 May 2019. In the wake of its September 1st rocket explosion, SpaceX has officially delayed the first crewed flight of its Crew Dragon vehicle [...] the first flight of the Crew Dragon with people on board is now slated to take place in May of 2018...
  59. ^ Malik, Tariq (1 September 2016). "Launchpad Explosion Destroys SpaceX Falcon 9 Rocket, Satellite in Florida". Space.com. Archived from the original on 21 May 2019. Retrieved 21 May 2019. A SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket and its commercial satellite payload were destroyed by an explosion at their launchpad in Florida early Thursday (Sept. 1) during a typically routine test.
  60. ^ Berger, Eric (28 January 2017). "Technical troubles likely to delay commercial crew flights until 2019". Ars Technica. Archived from the original on 21 May 2019. Retrieved 21 May 2019. NASA currently has contracts with Russia through 2018 to get its astronauts to the station. However, a delay of test flights into 2019 would necessarily push the first "operational" commercial crew flights into spring or summer of 2019 at a minimum.
  61. ^ Grush, Loren (16 February 2017). "SpaceX and Boeing probably won't be flying astronauts to the station until 2019, report suggests". The Verge. Archived from the original on 21 May 2019. Retrieved 21 May 2019. Because of the likelihood for delays, the GAO report recommends that NASA come up with a backup plan for getting its astronauts to the ISS beyond 2018.
  62. ^ Berger, Eric (18 January 2017). "As leadership departs, NASA quietly moves to buy more Soyuz seats". Ars Technica. Archived from the original on 21 May 2019. Retrieved 21 May 2019. a new solicitation filed by NASA on Tuesday reveals that the agency is indeed seeking to purchase Soyuz seats for 2019 (NASA will negotiate with Boeing for these additional seats, which Boeing received from Russia's Energia as compensation for the settlement of a lawsuit involving the Sea Launch joint venture).
  63. ^ Foust, Jeff (28 February 2017). "NASA signs agreement with Boeing for Soyuz seats". SpaceNews. Archived from the original on 21 May 2019. Retrieved 21 May 2019. NASA has quietly signed a contract with Boeing for up to five additional Soyuz seats to provide for both additional U.S. crewmembers on the International Space Station and margin for commercial crew delays.
  64. ^ Zraick, Karen (3 August 2018). "NASA Names Astronauts for Boeing and SpaceX Flights to International Space Station". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 4 August 2018. Retrieved 21 May 2019. NASA has named the astronauts chosen to fly on commercial spacecraft made by Boeing and SpaceX to and from the International Space Station, the research laboratory that orbits around Earth.
  65. ^ Sheetz, Michael (4 August 2018). "These are the astronauts NASA assigned for SpaceX and Boeing to launch the first crews from the US since 2011". CNBC. Archived from the original on 21 May 2019. Retrieved 21 May 2019. NASA named five astronauts to the first two Boeing flights and four to the first two SpaceX flights.
  66. ^ Dean, James (3 August 2018). "NASA names first astronauts to fly SpaceX, Boeing ships from Florida". USA Today. Archived from the original on 21 May 2019. Retrieved 21 May 2019. NASA on Friday named the astronaut test pilots who will be the first to fly SpaceX and Boeing capsules launched from Florida to the International Space Station, within a year or less, according to updated schedules.
  67. ^ Harwood, William (4 October 2018). "NASA revises launch targets for Boeing, SpaceX crew ships". CBS News. Archived from the original on 21 May 2019. Retrieved 21 May 2019. The first unpiloted test flight of a SpaceX commercial Dragon capsule intended to eventually ferry astronauts to and from the International Space Station is moving to January, NASA announced Thursday. The first unpiloted test flight of a Boeing Starliner commercial crew ship is now targeted for the March timeframe.
  68. ^ Agence France-Presse (5 October 2018). "First SpaceX mission with astronauts set for June 2019: NASA". Phys.org. Archived from the original on 21 May 2019. Retrieved 21 May 2019. NASA has announced the first crewed flight by a SpaceX rocket to the International Space Station (ISS) is expected to take place in June 2019. [...] A flight on Boeing spacecraft is set to follow in August 2019.
  69. ^ Davis, Jason (2 March 2019). "Crew Dragon Safely on the Way to International Space Station". The Planetary Society. Archived from the original on 21 May 2019. Retrieved 21 May 2019. SpaceX's Crew Dragon has successfully launched on its maiden voyage! The spacecraft lifted off as scheduled on 2 March at 02:49 EST (07:49 UTC).
  70. ^ Malik, Tariq (8 March 2019). "SpaceX's Crew Dragon Looks Just Like a Toasted Marshmallow After Fiery Re-Entry". Space.com. Archived from the original on 21 May 2019. Retrieved 21 May 2019. When SpaceX launched its first Crew Dragon spacecraft to the International Space Station last week, the gleaming white vehicle soared into space on its maiden voyage. Now, Crew Dragon is back, and it doesn't look so new. SpaceX's Crew Dragon returned to Earth today (March 8) with a smooth splashdown in the Atlantic Ocean...
  71. ^ Wattles, Jackie (8 March 2019). "SpaceX Crew Dragon, built to carry humans, returns home from ISS". CNN. Archived from the original on 21 May 2019. Retrieved 21 May 2019. NASA officials confirmed around 2:30 am ET that the capsule successfully detached from the space station. [...] and it splash down in the Atlantic Ocean around 8:45 am ET.
  72. ^ O'Callaghan, Jonathan (22 April 2019). "SpaceX's Crew Dragon Suffers 'Anomaly' And May Have Exploded During A Test". Forbes. Archived from the original on 21 May 2019. Retrieved 21 May 2019. SpaceX's historic Crew Dragon spacecraft that launched for the first time last month appears to have exploded, according to reports, potentially delaying the return to flight of humans from American soil. On Saturday, April 20, an explosion was reported at a test stand at SpaceX's Landing Zone 1 in Cape Canaveral, Florida.
  73. ^ Wall, Mike (21 April 2019). "SpaceX Crew Dragon Accident Another Bump in the Road for Commercial Crew". Space.com. Archived from the original on 21 May 2019. Retrieved 21 May 2019. Nobody was injured, but the capsule — which flew a successful uncrewed demonstration mission to the International Space Station (ISS) just last month — may have incurred serious damage.
  74. ^ a b Berger, Eric (3 May 2019). "Dragon was destroyed just before the firing of its SuperDraco thrusters". Ars Technica. Archived from the original on 21 May 2019. Retrieved 21 May 2019. Koenigsmann said the "anomaly" occurred during a series of tests with the spacecraft, approximately one-half second before the firing of the SuperDraco thrusters. At that point, he said, "There was an anomaly and the vehicle was destroyed." [...] Before this accident, SpaceX and NASA had been targeting early October for the first crewed Dragon mission to the station. Now, that will almost certainly be delayed by at least several months into 2020.
  75. ^ Foust, Jeff (20 August 2019). "Commercial crew providers prepare for fall test flights". SpaceNews. Retrieved 21 August 2019. However, both an in-flight abort test and the Demo-2 crewed flight test were delayed after the Demo-1 spacecraft, being prepared for the in-flight abort test, was destroyed during preparations for a static-fire test in April at Cape Canaveral.
  76. ^ Foust, Jeff (2 August 2018). "Boeing delays Starliner uncrewed test flight after abort engine test problem". SpaceNews. Archived from the original on 25 May 2020. Retrieved 25 May 2020. Boeing now plans to carry out an uncrewed test flight of its CST-100 Starliner commercial crew vehicle late this year or early next year as it addresses a problem found during a recent test of the spacecraft's abort engines. That revised schedule will push back a crewed test flight of the vehicle to the middle of 2019, said John Mulholland, vice president and program manager of Boeing's commercial crew program...
  77. ^ Mosher, Dave (3 August 2018). "Leaky valves on Boeing's new spacecraft are increasing the risk that NASA astronauts could lose access to the space station". Business Insider. Archived from the original on 25 May 2020. Retrieved 25 May 2020. But the agency is staring down a real possibility that it might not be able to send people into space after next year. That risk likely increased after Boeing discovered a problem in a new spacecraft system the company designed for NASA. The issue – a fuel leak – appeared on June 2, as Ars Technica first reported, when Boeing test-fired four thrusters designed to propel the Starliner away from a potential launchpad emergency.
  78. ^ Johnson, Eric M. (21 March 2019). "Boeing delays by months test flights for U.S. human space program: sources". Reuters. Archived from the original on 21 May 2019. Retrieved 21 May 2019. Boeing's first test flight was slated for April but it has been pushed to August, according to two people with direct knowledge of the matter. The new schedule means that Boeing's crewed mission, initially scheduled for August, will be delayed until November.
  79. ^ Haynes, Korey (21 March 2019). "Boeing's Starliner test flight delayed by months". Astronomy. Archived from the original on 21 May 2019. Retrieved 21 May 2019. ...the company will no longer launch an uncrewed test flight to the International Space Station in April, Reuters has reported. The flight is being pushed back to August. [...] This Starliner schedule slip will also delay Boeing's first crewed test flight, according to the same reporting, from August to November.
  80. ^ Joy, Rachel (2 August 2019). "Boeing readies 'astronaut' for likely October test launch". Florida Today. Archived from the original on 21 August 2019. Retrieved 21 August 2019. ...which will fly on the inaugural flight of the Starliner spacecraft now slated to launch late September or early October from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station.
  81. ^ Bartels, Meghan (4 November 2019). "Boeing Tests Starliner Spacecraft's Launch Abort System for Rocket Emergencies". Space.com. Archived from the original on 25 May 2020. Retrieved 25 May 2020. Boeing's CST-100 Starliner crewed vehicle aced a crucial safety test this morning (Nov. 4) in the New Mexico desert.
  82. ^ Etherington, Darrell (5 November 2019). "Boeing's Starliner crew spacecraft launch pad abort test is a success". TechCrunch. Archived from the original on 25 May 2020. Retrieved 25 May 2020. NASA's commercial crew partner Boeing has achieved a key milestone on the way to actually flying astronauts aboard its CST-100 Starliner: Demonstrating that its launch pad abort system works as designed, which is a key safety system that NASA requires to be in place before the aerospace company can put astronauts inside the Starliner.
  83. ^ Foust, Jeff (7 November 2019). "Missing pin blamed for Boeing pad abort parachute anomaly". SpaceNews. Archived from the original on 25 May 2020. Retrieved 25 May 2020. Boeing said Nov. 7 that a misplaced pin prevented a parachute from deploying during a pad abort test of its CST-100 Starliner vehicle three days earlier, the only flaw in a key test of that commercial crew vehicle.
  84. ^ Clark, Stephen (7 November 2019). "Boeing identifies cause of chute malfunction, preps for Starliner launch". Spaceflight Now. Archived from the original on 25 May 2020. Retrieved 25 May 2020. Only two of the three main parachutes deployed, an issue Boeing has attributed to the lack of a secure connection between the pilot chute and one of the main chutes.
  85. ^ Chang, Kenneth (20 December 2019). "Boeing Starliner Ends Up in Wrong Orbit After Clock Problem". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 25 May 2020. Retrieved 25 May 2020. As an Atlas 5 rocket arced upward into the pre-dawn sky from Cape Canaveral in Florida on Friday morning [...] On top of the rocket was Starliner, a capsule built by Boeing, part of a NASA strategy to delegate to private companies to handle the astronaut transportation. [...] The mission will now be cut short, without docking at the International Space Station and likely delaying plans that are already a couple of years behind schedule. [...] the spacecraft's clock was set to the wrong time, and a flawed thruster burn pushed the capsule into the wrong orbit.
  86. ^ Weitering, Hanneke (8 February 2020). "Boeing's 2nd Starliner software glitch could have led to an in-space collision". Space.com. Archived from the original on 25 May 2020. Retrieved 25 May 2020. NASA Administrator Jim Bridenstine said that an independent review team has identified several issues during the Orbital Flight Test (OFT) mission, particularly when it comes to the spacecraft's software. Along with the previously disclosed error with Starliner's onboard timer, a second software issue could have potentially led to a slight but problematic collision of two of the spacecraft's components, investigators determined.
  87. ^ Clark, Stephen (28 February 2020). "Boeing says thorough testing would have caught Starliner software problems". Spaceflight Now. Archived from the original on 25 May 2020. Retrieved 25 May 2020. Boeing missed a pair of software errors during the Starliner's Orbital Flight Test. One prevented the spacecraft from docking with the International Space Station, and the other could have resulted in catastrophic damage to the capsule during its return to Earth.
  88. ^ NASA Office of Safety and Mission Assurance (24 October 2011). "NASA Procedural Requirements for Mishap and Close Call Reporting, Investigating, and Recordkeeping w/Change 6" (PDF). The Campbell Institute. p. 49. Archived (PDF) from the original on 25 May 2020. Retrieved 25 May 2020. High Visibility (Mishaps or Close Calls). Those particular mishaps or close calls, regardless of theamount of property damage or personnel injury, that the Administrator, Chief/OSMA, CD,ED/OHO, or the Center SMA director judges to possess a high degree of programmatic impact or public, media, or political interest including, but not limited to, mishaps and close calls that impact flight hardware, flight software, or completion of critical mission milestones.
  89. ^ a b Berger, Eric (6 March 2020). "NASA declares Starliner mishap a "high visibility close call"". Ars Technica. Archived from the original on 25 May 2020. Retrieved 25 May 2020. NASA chief of human spaceflight Doug Loverro said Friday that he decided to escalate the incident. So he designated Starliner's uncrewed mission, during which the spacecraft flew a shortened profile and did not attempt to dock with the International Space Station, as a "high visibility close call." This relatively rare designation for NASA's human spaceflight program falls short of "loss of mission" but is nonetheless fairly rare.
  90. ^ Vergano, Dan (26 February 2014). "Spacewalk Mishap Tied to Clogged Helmet Filter". National Geographic. Archived from the original on 25 May 2020. Retrieved 25 May 2020. An International Space Station mishap that nearly killed an astronaut last year happened because of a clogged spacesuit filter, a NASA investigation board said on Wednesday. [...] "This was a high-visibility close call," said NASA's human exploration chief William Gerstenmaier.
  91. ^ Kramer, Miriam (26 February 2014). "Spacesuit Leak That Nearly Drowned Astronaut Could Have Been Avoided". Space.com. Archived from the original on 25 May 2020. Retrieved 25 May 2020. After the spacesuit incident — which NASA calls a "high visibility close call" — space agency officials halted all non-emergency spacewalks until they could learn more about what caused the malfunction.
  92. ^ Carrazana, Chabeli (6 March 2020). "Boeing had 49 gaps in testing for its astronaut capsule before failed flight, independent review finds". Orlando Sentinel. Archived from the original on 25 May 2020. Retrieved 25 May 2020. An independent review of the decisions that led to a failed test of Boeing's Starliner astronaut capsule found systematic and widespread missteps in the legacy company's testing procedures and software development [...] NASA has declared Boeing's mission a "high visibility close call" mishap...
  93. ^ "NASA Invites Media to Prelaunch, Launch Activities for Boeing's Orbital Flight Test-2". NASA (Press release). 3 February 2021. Retrieved 4 February 2021.
  94. ^ Davenport, Christian (7 April 2020). "After botched test flight, Boeing will refly its Starliner spacecraft for NASA". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 25 May 2020. Retrieved 25 May 2020. The repeat flight likely will occur sometime in October or November, meaning the company probably won't fly a mission with astronauts on board this year [...] Repeating the mission and investigating other problems with Starliner is an expensive proposition: Earlier this year, Boeing said it was taking a $410 million charge to offset the cost.
  95. ^ Clark, Stephen (6 April 2020). "After problem-plagued test flight, Boeing will refly crew capsule without astronauts". Spaceflight Now. Archived from the original on 25 May 2020. Retrieved 25 May 2020. Boeing told investors earlier this year it was taking a $410 million charge against its earnings to cover the expected costs of a second unpiloted test flight. [...] "We have chosen to refly our Orbital Flight Test to demonstrate the quality of the Starliner system," Boeing said in a statement [Monday]. "Flying another uncrewed flight will allow us to complete all flight test objectives and evaluate the performance of the second Starliner vehicle at no cost to the [taxpayer"]
  96. ^ a b TASS staff (13 May 2020). "Роскосмос подтвердил подписание контракта на доставку астронавта NASA на корабле "Союз"". TASS (in Russian). Archived from the original on 25 May 2020. Retrieved 25 May 2020. Roscosmos and NASA signed a contract for the delivery of one American astronaut on a crewed Soyuz MS spacecraft in Autumn 2020. [...] The head of NASA, Jim Bridenstein [...] also admitted the possibility of buying a second place.
  97. ^ a b Clark, Stephen (12 May 2020). "NASA inks deal with Roscosmos to ensure continuous U.S. presence on space station". Spaceflight Now. Archived from the original on 25 May 2020. Retrieved 25 May 2020. "To ensure the agency keeps its commitment for safe operations via a continuous U.S. presence aboard the International Space Station until commercial crew capabilities are routinely available, NASA has completed negotiations with the State Space Corporation Roscosmos to purchase one additional Soyuz seat for a launch this fall," NASA said in a statement Tuesday. [...] NASA has not ruled out paying Russia's space agency for an additional Soyuz seat on a launch next April.
  98. ^ Atkinson, Ian (17 January 2020). "SpaceX conducts successful Crew Dragon In-Flight Abort Test". NASASpaceFlight.com. Archived from the original on 25 May 2020. Retrieved 25 May 2020. SpaceX successfully launched a unique Falcon 9 rocket at LC-39A for the in-flight abort test of their Crew Dragon spacecraft. The uncrewed test flight saw the spacecraft demonstrate its ability to escape a failing rocket mid-flight. Sunday's launch occurred at 10:30 AM Eastern, with a successful test resulting in the safe splashdown of the Dragon vehicle.
  99. ^ Sheetz, Michael (19 January 2020). "Fiery SpaceX test of Crew Dragon capsule was 'picture perfect,' Elon Musk says". CNBC. Archived from the original on 25 May 2020. Retrieved 25 May 2020. SpaceX completed its last major test before flying astronauts to space on Sunday, in a critical high-speed mission that lasted mere minutes. [...] It's a crucial milestone for Musk's space company, as it will be key in determining whether NASA certifies the company's capsule to begin flying the agency's astronauts.
  100. ^ a b Grush, Loren (19 January 2020). "SpaceX successfully tests escape system on new spacecraft — while destroying a rocket". The Verge. Archived from the original on 25 May 2020. Retrieved 25 May 2020. On Sunday morning, SpaceX successfully launched one of its last big flight tests for NASA, a launch that could pave the way for the company to carry passengers into space later this year. [...] With this test now complete, the next big flight of the Crew Dragon will have people on board: NASA astronauts Bob Behnken and Doug Hurley.
  101. ^ Davenport, Christian (24 September 2021). "Nearly two months after discovering a problem with its Starliner spacecraft, Boeing is still searching for answers". The Washington Post. Retrieved 27 September 2021.
  102. ^ Josh Dinner (25 May 2022). "Touchdown! Boeing's Starliner returns to Earth from space station". Space.com. Retrieved 26 May 2022.
  103. ^ Herridge, Linda (28 February 2022). "NASA Awards SpaceX Additional Crew Flights to Space Station". NASA. Retrieved 3 March 2022.
  104. ^ a b Malik, Tariq (26 June 2019). "This Is SpaceX's 1st Crewed Dragon Spaceship Destined for Space". Space.com. Archived from the original on 21 August 2019. Retrieved 21 August 2019. SpaceX's Crew Dragon, a crewed version of the company's robotic Dragon cargo ship, is one of two commercial space taxis that NASA will use to ferry astronauts to and from the International Space Station. Boeing's CST-100 Starliner is the other. Both spacecraft are designed to carry up to seven astronauts.
  105. ^ Reichhardt 2018, "비록 그 배들이 과거에 대해 고개를 끄덕이는 것처럼 보이지만, 우주 비행사들이 30년 동안 궤도를 돌기 위해 탔던 우주 비행기 대신 아폴로 스타일의 "캡슐" [...] 스타라이너와 크루 드래곤 모두 우주 비행사의 입력 없이 자동으로 정거장으로 이동하여 도킹합니다. (어떤 문제가 발생하면 승무원은 수동 제어를 할 수 있습니다.)"
  106. ^ a b c Wall 2018, "(그런데 "CST"는 "승무원 우주 수송"을 의미합니다.) Starliner는 또한 매끈한 터치스크린 디스플레이를 특징으로 하며 SpaceX 캡슐과 거의 같은 양의 내부 부피를 가지고 있습니다."
  107. ^ a b 2018년 하웰(Howell)은 "스타라이너의 직경은 15피트(4.5m), 서비스 모듈을 포함한 길이는 16.5피트(5m), 부피는 약 390입방피트(11입방피트)입니다."
  108. ^ a b 2018년 월, "검드롭 모양의 화물 드래곤은 높이 14.4 피트, 밑면 폭 12 피트 (4.4 x 3.7 미터)이며 내부 부피는 390 입방 피트 (11 입방 미터)입니다."
  109. ^ 라이히하르트 2018, "좌석 수용 능력:최대 7명의 NASA는 각 차량이 4명의 사람들을 정거장으로 혹은 정거장으로 수송할 수 있도록 요구했습니다.두 차량 모두 5번째 좌석을 이용할 수 있습니다.각 회사는 7명의 좌석을 광고합니다."
  110. ^ Howell 2018, "일단 스타라이너가 우주 정거장에 부착되면, 그것은 210일 동안 그곳에 머물도록 설계되었습니다. 이는 보통의 승무원들이 6개월 또는 180일 동안 머물 수 있는 충분한 시간입니다."
  111. ^ Etherington, Darrell (18 April 2020). "NASA and SpaceX set historic first astronaut launch for May 27". TechCrunch. Archived from the original on 26 May 2020. Retrieved 26 May 2020. That Crew Dragon, which is the fully operational version, is designed for stays of at least 210 days, and the crew complement of four astronauts, including three from NASA and one from Japan's space agency, is already determined.
  112. ^ a b Burghardt, Michael; Ingham, Jay; Lembeck, Michael F.; Reiley, Keith; Wood, Michael (1 May 2013). "Design Considerations for a Commercial Crew Transportation System" (PDF). The Boeing Company. p. 3. Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 May 2013. Retrieved 26 May 2020. The CST 100 can operate autonomously for up to 60 hours of free-flight [...] The vehicle can stay docked to a host complex for up to 210 days...
  113. ^ Reichhardt 2018, "디자이너들은 어려운 안전 기준을 위해 노력하고 있습니다: 2011년 은퇴할 때 우주왕복선에 대해 계산된 90분의 1의 확률과 비교하여, 치명적인 사고의 가능성은 270분의 1입니다."
  114. ^ a b "Sealed with Care – A Q&A". NASA. 3 August 2020. Retrieved 3 October 2022.
  115. ^ a b Szondy, David (4 April 2019). "First manned flight test of Boeing's Starliner to the ISS extended, but launch delayed". New Atlas. Archived from the original on 21 August 2019. Retrieved 21 August 2019. The Starliner is designed to be flown up to 10 times before it needs replacement [...] the new NASA Docking System (NDS) that will be used to dock with the ISS...
  116. ^ Speed, Richard (4 March 2019). "SpaceX Crew Dragon: Launched and docked. Now, about that splashdown..." The Register. Archived from the original on 21 August 2019. Retrieved 21 August 2019. Another very important difference is the nose cone, which hinges to reveal the NASA Docking System (NDS). The cargo-only Dragon uses the larger Common Berthing Mechanism (CBM) for docking...
  117. ^ 2018년 월, "크루 드래곤은 화물의 상대편을 개조한 것이며, 팰컨 9을 탑재할 것입니다."
  118. ^ Gray, Tyler (9 March 2020). "CRS-20 – Final Dragon 1 arrives at the ISS". NASASpaceFlight.com. Archived from the original on 25 May 2020. Retrieved 25 May 2020. The first iteration of SpaceX's Dragon has successfully flown twenty missions to the ISS to date [...] CRS-20 is the last flight of the first-generation Dragon spacecraft, with the cargo version of the upgraded Dragon 2 spacecraft expected to take over services next year as part of Phase 2 of the CRS program, also known as CRS2.
  119. ^ 라이히하르트 2018, "직경: 12.1 피트.높이: 23.6 ft. 치수는 드래곤의 화물 "트렁크"를 포함합니다.""
  120. ^ a b 2018년 월, "재사용 가능?:네, 용은 재사용이 가능합니다. 비록 시험 비행은 새 차량을 띄울 것이지만요.화물 트렁크는 매 비행 후 폐기됩니다."
  121. ^ Sheetz, Michael (10 March 2020). "SpaceX on track to launch first NASA astronauts in May, president says". CNBC. Archived from the original on 25 May 2020. Retrieved 25 May 2020. Shotwell also noted that SpaceX is planning to reuse its Crew Dragon capsules. That was in doubt previously, as the leader of NASA's Commercial Crew program said in 2018 that SpaceX would use a new capsule each time the company flew the agency's astronauts. "We can fly crew more than once on a Crew Dragon," Shotwell said. "I'm pretty sure NASA is going to be okay with reuse."
  122. ^ Sheetz, Michael (10 March 2020). "SpaceX on track to launch first NASA astronauts in May, president says". CNBC. Archived from the original on 25 May 2020. Retrieved 10 March 2020.
  123. ^ "NASA agrees to fly astronauts on reused Crew Dragon spacecraft". Spaceflight Now. 23 June 2020. Archived from the original on 16 July 2020. Retrieved 23 July 2020.
  124. ^ @jeff_foust (23 July 2020). "McErlean: NASA's plans call for reusing the Falcon 9 booster from the Crew-1 mission on the Crew-2 mission, and to reuse the Demo-2 capsule for Crew-2 as well" (Tweet) – via Twitter.
  125. ^ Foust, Jeff (19 November 2022). "SpaceX to launch last new cargo Dragon spacecraft". SpaceNews. Retrieved 18 February 2023. Walker revealed at the briefing SpaceX plans to build a fifth and likely final Crew Dragon.
  126. ^ Ralph, Eric (6 March 2019). "DeepSpace: SpaceX takes huge step towards Mars with flawless Crew Dragon performance". Teslarati. Archived from the original on 26 May 2020. Retrieved 26 May 2020. ...Crew Dragon does not need a significant number of systems critical for longer stays in space, as it is only designed to support humans for approximately one week in free-flight.
  127. ^ 2018년 월, "크루 드래곤은 또한 캡슐의 벽에 내장된 8개의 SuperDraco 엔진으로 구성된 비상 탈출 시스템을 갖추고 있습니다.만약 크루 드래곤 비행 중에 어떤 문제가 생기면, 이 엔진들이 불을 뿜어서 우주선과 승객들을 안전한 곳으로 실어 나를 수 있습니다."
  128. ^ Seedhouse, Erik (2015). Cressy, Christine (ed.). SpaceX's Dragon: America's Next Generation Spacecraft. Daytona Beach, Florida: Springer. p. 132. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-21515-0. ISBN 978-3-319-21515-0. Retrieved 25 May 2020. The first test of the SuperDraco [...] was an impressive demonstration of what the engine could do, not only sustaining its 71,000 newtons (16,000 pounds) of thrust...
  129. ^ a b Weitering, Hanneke (24 April 2019). "The Emergency Launch Abort Systems of SpaceX and Boeing Explained". Space.com. Archived from the original on 25 May 2020. Retrieved 25 May 2020. SpaceX has built the thrusters into the capsule's outer walls. Eight SuperDraco engines are embedded in the hull and will "push" the capsule away from the rocket in an emergency. [...] Boeing's CST-100 Starliner uses a similar launch escape system as the one on the Crew Dragon, but instead of eight SuperDraco engines, it uses four RS-88 engines, which are built by Aerojet Rocketdyne.
  130. ^ Leone, Dan (29 May 2014). "SpaceX's SuperDraco Thruster for Manned Dragon Spacecraft Passes Big Test (Video)". Space.com. Archived from the original on 25 May 2020. Retrieved 25 May 2020. Besides launch abort, SuperDraco thrusters will allow SpaceX's spacecraft to land propulsively on the ground, the company says. Propulsive Dragon landing tests are slated to begin at McGregor under the DragonFly program
  131. ^ Bergin, Chris (21 October 2015). "SpaceX DragonFly arrives at McGregor for testing". NASASpaceFlight.com. Archived from the original on 25 May 2020. Retrieved 25 May 2020. SpaceX's DragonFly test vehicle has arrived at its test facility in McGregor, Texas. DragonFly will be attached to a large crane, ahead of a series of test firings of its SuperDraco thrusters to set the stage towards the eventual goal of propulsive landings.
  132. ^ 2018년 월, "궤도에 대한 작업이 완료되면 낙하산을 이용한 물보라가 바다에 떨어집니다. [...] SpaceX의 설립자이자 CEO인 Elon Musk는 이전에 Crew Dragon이 낙하산과 레트로 로켓 발사를 사용하여 궁극적으로 테라피마에 터치다운 할 수 있을 것이라고 말했습니다 [...] 그러나 그 옵션은 더 이상 실행되고 있지 않습니다."
  133. ^ 라이히하르트 2018, "착륙지:대서양
  134. ^ a b Dreier, Casey (19 May 2020). "NASA's Commercial Crew Program is a Fantastic Deal". The Planetary Society. Archived from the original on 27 June 2020. Retrieved 27 June 2020. Crew Dragon $60 - $67 million; Starliner $91 - $99 million [...] Starliner and Crew Dragon per-seat costs use the total contract value for operations divided by the maximum 24 seats available. The upper range reflects the inclusion of NASA's program overhead.
  135. ^ a b McCarthy, Niall (4 June 2020). "Why SpaceX Is A Game Changer For NASA [Infographic]". Forbes. Archived from the original on 27 June 2020. Retrieved 27 June 2020. According to the NASA audit, the SpaceX Crew Dragon's per-seat cost works out at an estimated $55 million while a seat on Boeing's Starliner is approximately $90 million...
  136. ^ a b McFall-Johnsen, Morgan; Mosher, Dave; Secon, Holly (26 January 2020). "SpaceX is set to launch astronauts on Wednesday. Here's how Elon Musk's company became NASA's best shot at resurrecting American spaceflight". Business Insider. Archived from the original on 27 June 2020. Retrieved 27 June 2020. Eventually, a round-trip seat on the Crew Dragon is expected to cost about $US55 million. A seat on Starliner will cost about $US90 million. That's according to a November 2019 report from the NASA Office of Inspector General.
  137. ^ a b Wall, Mike (16 November 2019). "Here's How Much NASA Is Paying Per Seat on SpaceX's Crew Dragon & Boeing's Starliner". Space.com. Archived from the original on 27 June 2020. Retrieved 27 June 2020. NASA will likely pay about $90 million for each astronaut who flies aboard Boeing's CST-100 Starliner capsule on International Space Station (ISS) missions, the report estimated. The per-seat cost for SpaceX's Crew Dragon capsule, meanwhile, will be around $55 million, according to the OIG's calculations.
  138. ^ 라이히하르트 2018, "헤드 / 레그룸: 직경: 15피트.높이: 16.6피트. 치수는 서비스(추진) 모듈을 포함합니다."
  139. ^ Reichhardt 2018, "재사용 가능?:네 크루 캡슐은 최대 10회까지 리플로우 가능합니다.서비스 모듈은 매 비행 후 폐기됩니다."
  140. ^ a b c Clark, Stephen (27 November 2015). "Aerojet Rocketdyne wins propulsion contracts worth nearly $1.4 billion". Spaceflight Now. Archived from the original on 8 June 2020. Retrieved 25 May 2020. Aerojet Rocketdyne, an aerospace propulsion contractor based in Sacramento, California, also announced this week it secured an expected contract from Boeing to provide thrusters, fuel tanks and abort engines for the CST-100 Starliner commercial crew capsule. [...] Each shipset includes four 40,000-pound thrust launch abort engines for the CST-100's pusher escape system and 24 orbital maneuvering and attitude control thrusters, each generating 1,500 pounds of thrust for low-altitude abort attitude control and in-space orbit adjustments.
  141. ^ a b c Gebhardt, Chris (19 December 2019). "Boeing, ULA launches Starliner, suffers orbital insertion issue – will return home Sunday". NASASpaceFlight.com. Archived from the original on 25 May 2020. Retrieved 25 May 2020. The Crew Module is equipped with 12 Reaction Control System (RCS) thrusters that can produce 100 lbf of thrust each. [...] The Service Module contains 28 RCS thrusters that produce 85 lbf thrust each and 20 Orbital Maneuvering and Attitude Control (OMAC) engines. The OMACs produce 1,500 lbf thrust each. [...] This suborbital trajectory was requested by Boeing so that under normal conditions, Starliner can then burn most of its unused launch abort fuel (via the Orbit Insertion Burn) to lighten its mass before it boosts its orbit to phase up to the Station.
  142. ^ a b Rhian, Jason (2 November 2016). "Launch Abort Engines for Boeing's CST-100 Starliner undergo testing". Spaceflight Insider. Archived from the original on 25 May 2020. Retrieved 25 May 2020. The OMAC thrusters are 1,500-pound (6,672-newton) thrust class and are used for low-altitude launch abort attitude control, maneuvering, and stage-separation functions [...] The spacecraft's RCS engines are 100-pound (445-newton) thrust class and provide high-altitude abort attitude control and on-orbit maneuvering.
  143. ^ The Boeing Company (December 2019). "Reporter's Starliner Notebook" (PDF). The Boeing Company. p. 5. Retrieved 25 May 2020. Service Module: [...] 4 Launch Abort Engines, 40,000 lbf each
  144. ^ 2018년 월, "그러나 스타라이너는 바다가 아닌 육지에 착륙하며, 따라서 둥근 베이스에 스포츠 충격 쿠션 에어백을 장착하기도 합니다."
  145. ^ a b 라이히하르트 2018, "착륙지:서부의 스타라이너는 소유즈처럼 건조한 땅에 낙하산으로 착륙하고 에어백을 사용하여 충격을 완화시킬 예정입니다.뉴멕시코주 화이트 샌즈, 더그웨이 프로빙 그라운드, 캘리포니아주 에드워즈 AFB, AZ주 윌콕스 플레이아에 착륙 지점."
  146. ^ Howell 2018, "만약 비상사태가 발생한다면, 아폴로와 드래곤처럼 우주선은 바다에 튕겨져 떨어질 수 있습니다."
  147. ^ 2018년 라이히하르트는 "각 회사는 최대 6대의 추가 택시 항공편을 계약했으며, 이 기간 동안 스타라이너 또는 크루 드래곤은 우주 정거장과 도킹하고 승무원의 구명정으로 6개월 동안 부착된 상태를 유지한 후 우주 비행사들을 지구로 돌려보낼 것입니다."라고 말했습니다.
  148. ^ a b Harding, Pete (26 February 2017). "Commercial rotation plans firming up as US Segment crew to increase early". NASASpaceFlight.com. Archived from the original on 21 August 2019. Retrieved 21 August 2019. But with the new generation of US commercial crew vehicles, which can accommodate four astronauts, it will finally become possible to increase the station's crew size to its originally conceived number of seven, including four USOS crewmembers. [...] establishing the norm for all subsequent commercial crew vehicles, which will then continue to launch at a cadence of once every six months.
  149. ^ Northon, Karen (26 October 2020). "NASA, SpaceX Invite Media to Crew-1 Mission Update, Target New Date" (Press release). NASA.
  150. ^ Carter, Jamie (23 May 2020). "'Historic' NASA-SpaceX Rocket Launch Will Begin New Era In Human Spaceflight This Week". Forbes. Archived from the original on 25 May 2020. Retrieved 25 May 2020. ...Crew-1, that will see four astronauts—three astronauts from NASA (Mike Hopkins, Shannon Walker and Victor Glover) and one, Soichi Noguchi, from JAXA, the Japanese space agency—head from Florida to the ISS for a planned six-month expedition. Crew-1 will be SpaceX's first scheduled crew rotation mission.
  151. ^ The Planetary Society staff (20 May 2020). "Your Guide to Crew Dragon's First Astronaut Flight". The Planetary Society. Archived from the original on 25 May 2020. Retrieved 25 May 2020. Not just NASA astronauts will fly aboard Crew Dragon—Japan's Soichi Noguchi will be 1 of 4 crewmembers on the very next flight scheduled for September 2020.
  152. ^ a b Gebhardt, Chris (29 May 2019). "NASA briefly updates status of Crew Dragon anomaly, SpaceX test schedule". NASASpaceFlight.com. Archived from the original on 21 August 2019. Retrieved 21 August 2019. Even with the anomaly that occurred last month, Ms. Lueders was able to update the NAC directly on the current hardware readiness dates for the In Flight Abort test and the Demo-2 crew mission, both of which now have to use different Crew Dragon capsules than originally planned. [...] Current capsule reassignments: [...] SN 207; Original Assignment Crew-2; New Assignment Crew-1
  153. ^ a b Foust, Jeff (24 July 2020). "NASA safety panel has lingering doubts about Boeing Starliner quality control". SpaceNews. Archived from the original on 24 July 2020. Retrieved 24 July 2020. ...the first operational Crew Dragon mission, Crew-1. NASA said in a July 22 media advisory it anticipated a launch no earlier than late September. [...] NASA approved a contract modification in May that allows SpaceX to reuse boosters and capsule starting on the Crew-2 mission, which would launch in 2021. McErlean said NASA expects that the Crew-2 will use the Falcon 9 booster that launches Crew-1, and the capsule from the ongoing Demo-2 mission.
  154. ^ Gebhardt, Chris (20 June 2019). "Station mission planning reveals new target Commercial Crew launch dates". NASASpaceFlight.com. Archived from the original on 21 August 2019. Retrieved 21 August 2019. ...the two U.S. crew members who will be on that flight to the Station in May 2020 is completely dependent on whether Starliner or Dragon flies the mission. [...] Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) astronaut Soichi Noguchi will be on that first crew rotation mission regardless of which commercial partner flies it.
  155. ^ Harwood, William (9 April 2020). "Soyuz crew docks with the International Space Station". Spaceflight Now. Archived from the original on 25 May 2020. Retrieved 25 May 2020. Strapped into the Soyuz MS-16/62S command module's center seat was veteran cosmonaut Anatoli Ivanishin, joined by rookie flight engineer Ivan Vagner on the left and Navy SEAL-turned-astronaut Chris Cassidy on the right.
  156. ^ Wall, Mike (18 June 2020). "NASA says SpaceX can reuse Crew Dragon capsules and rockets on astronaut missions: report". Space.com. Archived from the original on 30 June 2020. Retrieved 30 June 2020. The agency has approved the use of preflown Crew Dragon capsules and Falcon 9 rockets on SpaceX's crewed missions to the International Space Station (ISS) [...] The first flight with used hardware could be Crew-2, the second contracted mission, which will likely lift off sometime in 2021...
  157. ^ Potter, Sean (5 March 2021). "NASA, SpaceX Invite Media to Next Commercial Crew Launch". NASA. Retrieved 5 March 2021. Public Domain 이 기사는 공용 도메인에 있는 이 소스의 텍스트를 통합합니다.
  158. ^ Potter, Sean (28 July 2020). "NASA Announces Astronauts to Fly on SpaceX Crew-2 Mission". NASA.
  159. ^ a b Sempsrott, Danielle (19 October 2021). "NASA, SpaceX Adjust Next Crew Launch Date to Space Station". NASA. Retrieved 20 October 2021.
  160. ^ "NASA, ESA Choose Astronauts for SpaceX Crew-3 Mission to Space Station". NASA.gov. NASA. 14 December 2020. Retrieved 14 December 2020.
  161. ^ "Kayla Barron Joins NASA's SpaceX Crew-3 Mission to Space Station". NASA.gov. NASA. 17 May 2021. Retrieved 18 May 2021.
  162. ^ "NASA Assigns Astronauts to Agency's SpaceX Crew-4 Mission to Space Station". NASA.gov. NASA. 12 February 2021. Retrieved 12 February 2021. Public Domain 이 기사는 공용 도메인에 있는 이 소스의 텍스트를 통합합니다.
  163. ^ "SMSR Integrated Master Schedule" (PDF). Office of Safety and Mission Assurance. NASA. 7 June 2021. Retrieved 13 June 2021.
  164. ^ "Commanding role for ESA astronaut Samantha Cristoforetti". European Space Agency. 28 May 2021. Retrieved 13 June 2021.
  165. ^ "NASA Assigns Astronaut Jessica Watkins to NASA's SpaceX Crew-4 Mission". NASA. 16 November 2021. Retrieved 16 November 2021.
  166. ^ "NASA Announces Astronaut Changes for Upcoming Commercial Crew Missions" (Press release). NASA. 6 October 2021. Retrieved 6 October 2021. Public Domain 이 기사는 공용 도메인에 있는 이 소스의 텍스트를 통합합니다.
  167. ^ @jaxa_wdc (12 October 2021). "JAXA has announced their WAKATA Koichi @Astro_Wakata is headed for the International Space Station aboard SpaceX's…" (Tweet) – via Twitter.
  168. ^ "Rogozin says Crew Dragon safe for Russian cosmonauts". SpaceNews. 26 October 2021. Retrieved 29 October 2021.
  169. ^ "NASA to Secure Additional Commercial Crew Transportation". NASA Blogs. 3 December 2021.
  170. ^ @thesheetztweetz (3 December 2021). "NASA announces the agency intends to acquire "up to three additional crew flights to the International Space Station" from SpaceX, with the company halfway through its initial 6 flight contract and Boeing's Starliner capsule not yet operational, NASA says it may need to use the additional Crew Dragon flights "as early as 2023," effectively giving an additional buffer for any more Starliner delays" (Tweet) – via Twitter.
  171. ^ "Russian-US seat swap agreement to be in force through the end of 2024 — NASA". TASS. 4 August 2022. Retrieved 5 August 2022.
  172. ^ "NASA Awards SpaceX More Crew Flights to Space Station". 31 August 2022.
  173. ^ "NASA official sees possibility of expanding integrated flight deal with Russia". TASS. 4 August 2022. Retrieved 5 August 2022.
  174. ^ Clark, Stephen (28 September 2022). "SpaceX, ULA postpone launches as Hurricane Ian moves toward Florida". Spaceflight Now. Retrieved 2 October 2022.
  175. ^ "Распоряжение Правительства Российской Федерации от 10.06.2022 № 1532-р ∙ Официальное опубликование правовых актов ∙ Официальный интернет-портал правовой информации". publication.pravo.gov.ru. Retrieved 11 June 2022.
  176. ^ Clark, Stephen (22 September 2022). "Launch Schedule". Spaceflight Now. Retrieved 23 September 2022.
  177. ^ Wattles, Jackie; Pavlova, Uliana (15 July 2022). "SpaceX rockets to fly Russian cosmonauts with new NASA deal". CNN.com. CNN. Retrieved 16 July 2022. Andrei Fedyaev will fly on another SpaceX mission in the spring of 2023, according to NASA.
  178. ^ "NASA, SpaceX Reset Crew-7 Launch to Friday, Aug. 25 – Commercial Crew Program". blogs.nasa.gov. 3 August 2023. Retrieved 12 August 2023.
  179. ^ "Medics find Russian cosmonauts fit for flying on Crew Dragon to ISS".
  180. ^ Costa, Jason (14 April 2023). "NASA Updates Commercial Crew Planning Manifest Through 2024". NASA. Retrieved 14 April 2023.
  181. ^ "NASA Updates Crew Assignments for First Starliner Crew Rotation Flight". NASA. 30 September 2022. Retrieved 30 September 2022. Public Domain 이 기사는 공용 도메인에 있는 이 소스의 텍스트를 통합합니다.
  1. ^ 괄호 안에 일련 번호가 표시됩니다.재사용된 부스터는 재활용된 기호로 표시됩니다.
  2. ^ 재사용된 캡슐을 사용한 발사는 재활용된 기호 ♺로 표시됩니다.

메모들

  1. ^ "고도 가시성 사고" 및 "고도 가시성 근접 호출"은 임무 수행 중인 우주선 및/또는 승무원에게 높은 수준의 대중, 언론 및/또는 정치적 관심을 미치는 사고를 설명하는 용어입니다.[88][89]"고가시 근접 통화"는 이전에 탐험 36 동안 중단된 EVA를 설명하는 데 사용되었습니다.[90][91]

외부 링크

위키미디어 커먼즈는 커머셜 크루 프로그램과 관련된 미디어를 보유하고 있습니다.