사업주기의 복지비용

Welfare cost of business cycles

거시경제학에서 사업주기비용사업주기 변동으로 인한 사회복지의 감소다.

노벨 경제학자로버트 루카스는 경기순환의 영향을 받는 소비 트렌드와 경기순환의 영향을 받는 소비 트렌드 사이에서 대표적인 소비자무관심하게 만드는 데 필요한 소비 증가율이 높아짐에 따라 경기순환 비용을 측정하자고 제안했다.

경기 순환이 추세 성장 경로 주변의 무작위적인 충격을 나타낸다는 가정 하에 로버트 루카스는 경기 순환의 비용은 극히 미미하며,[1][2] 그 결과 학계 경제학자들과 정책 입안자들 모두 장기적인 성장보다는 경제 안정 정책에 초점을 맞추는데 초점을 잘못 맞추었다고 주장했다.[3][4] 루카스 자신은 1987년 이 비용을 계산한 후 단기 변동 연구로부터 벗어나 자신의 거시경제 연구 프로그램을 재정비했다.[citation needed]

그러나 루카스의 결론은 논란의 여지가 있다. 특히 케인즈 경제학자들은 전형적으로 경기 사이클이 추세 위아래로 변동하는 것으로 이해되어서는 안 된다고 주장한다. 대신 경기 호황은 잠재 생산량 추세에 근접하는 시기, 경기 침체는 경기가 실질적으로 추세를 밑도는 시기여서 생산량 격차가 크다는 주장이다.[4][5] 이런 관점에서 볼 때, 경기 순환의 복지 비용은 더 큰데, 경기 순환의 경제는 더 많은 가변적 소비를 겪을 뿐만 아니라 평균적으로 소비도 감소하기 때문이다.

기본 직감

소비 변동성에 대한 개인 보상(확대하려면 클릭)

소비경로는 각각 같은 추세와 동일한 초기 소비경로를 가지고 있고, 그 결과 평균적으로 기간당 소비수준이 서로 다른 두 가지 소비경로를 고려한다면, 경제이론에 따르면 변동성이 적은 소비경로는 변동성이 큰 소비경로를 선호할 것이다. 이것은 개별 에이전트의 일부에 대한 위험 회피 때문이다. 개인(또는 어떤 제한적 조건 하에서 사회적) 복지에 있어 이 더 큰 변동성이 얼마나 비용이 많이 드는지를 계산하는 한 가지 방법은 이 변동성을 완전히 제거하기 위해 개인은 연간 평균 소비량 중 몇 퍼센트를 기꺼이 희생할 것인지를 묻는 것이다. 를 표현하는 또 다른 방법은 소비경로가 원활한 개인이 변동성이 없는 개인 대신 변동성 경로를 수용하려면 평균소비 측면에서 얼마만큼 보상을 받아야 하는지를 묻는 것이다. 평균 연간 소비량의 백분율로 표현되는 결과적 보상액은 루카스가 계산한 변동비용이다. 그것은 사람들의 위험 혐오 정도와 자연 소비 로그표준 편차로 측정된, 제거해야 할 변동 규모의 함수다.[6]

Lucas' formula

Robert Lucas' baseline formula for the welfare cost of business cycles is given by (see mathematical derivation below):

where is the cost of fluctuations (the % of average annual consumption that a person would be willing to pay to eliminate all fluctuations in her consumption), is the standard deviation of the natural log of consumption and measures the degree of relative risk aversion.[6]

It is straightforward to measure from available data. Using US data from between 1947 and 2001 Lucas obtained . It is a little harder to obtain an empirical estimate of ; although it should be theoretically possible, many controversies in economics revolve around the precise and appropriate measurement of this parameter. However it is doubtful that is particularly high (most estimates are no higher than 4).

As an illustrative example consider the case of log utility (see below) in which case . In this case the welfare cost of fluctuations is

In other words, eliminating all the fluctuations from a person's consumption path (i.e., eliminating the business cycle entirely) is worth only 1/20 of 1 percent of average annual consumption. For example, an individual who consumes $50,000 worth of goods a year on average would be willing to pay only $25 to eliminate consumption fluctuations.

The implication is that, if the calculation is correct and appropriate, the ups and downs of the business cycles, the recessions and the booms, hardly matter for individual and possibly social welfare. It is the long run trend of economic growth that is crucial.

If is at the upper range of estimates found in literature, around 4, then

or 1/5 of 1 percent. An individual with average consumption of $50,000 would be willing to pay $100 to eliminate fluctuations. This is still a very small amount compared to the implications of long run growth on income.

One way to get an upper bound on the degree of risk aversion is to use the Ramsey model of intertemporal savings and consumption. In that case, the equilibrium real interest rate is given by

where is the real (after tax) rate of return on capital (the real interest rate), is the subjective rate of time preference (which measures impatience) and is the annual growth rate of consumption. is generally estimated to be around 5% (.05) and the annual growth rate of consumption is about 2% (.02). Then the upper bound on the cost of fluctuations occurs when is at its highest, which in this case occurs if . This implies that the highest possible degree of risk aversion is

which in turn, combined with estimates given above, yields a cost of fluctuations as

which is still extremely small (13% of 1%).

Mathematical representation and formula

Lucas sets up an infinitely lived representative agent model where total lifetime utility () is given by the present discounted value (with representing the discount factor) of per period utilities () which in turn depend on consumption in each period ()[4]

In the case of a certain consumption path, consumption in each period is given by

where is initial consumption and is the growth rate of consumption (neither of these parameters turns out to matter for costs of fluctuations in the baseline model, so they can be normalized to 1 and 0 respectively).

In the case of a volatile, uncertain consumption path, consumption in each period is given by

where is the standard deviation of the natural log of consumption and is a random shock which is assumed to be log-normally distributed so that the mean of is zero, which in turn implies that the expected value of is 1 (i.e., on average, volatile consumption is same as certain consumption). In this case is the "compensation parameter" which measures the percentage by which average consumption has to be increased for the consumer to be indifferent between the certain path of consumption and the volatile one. is the cost of fluctuations.

We find this cost of fluctuations by setting

and solving for

For the case of isoelastic utility, given by

we can obtain an (approximate) closed form solution which has already been given above

A special case of the above formula occurs if utility is logarithmic, which corresponds to the case of , which means that the above simplifies to . In other words, with log utility the cost of fluctuations is equal to one half the variance of the natural logarithm of consumption.[6]

An alternative, more accurate solution gives losses that are somewhat larger, especially when volatility is large.[7]

Risk aversion and the equity premium puzzle

However, a major problem related to the above way of estimating (hence ) and in fact, possibly to Lucas' entire approach is the so-called equity premium puzzle, first observed by Mehra and Prescott in 1985.[8] The analysis above implies that since macroeconomic risk is unimportant, the premium associated with systematic risk, that is, risk in returns to an asset that is correlated with aggregate consumption should be small (less than 0.5 percentage points for the values of risk aversion considered above). In fact the premium has averaged around six percentage points.

In a survey of the implications of the equity premium, Simon Grant and John Quiggin note that 'A high cost of risk means that recessions are extremely destructive'.[9]

Evidence from effects on subjective wellbeing

Justin Wolfers has shown that macroeconomic volatility reduces subjective wellbeing; the effects are somewhat larger than expected under the Lucas approach. According to Wolfers, 'eliminating unemployment volatility would raise well-being by an amount roughly equal to that from lowering the average level of unemployment by a quarter of a percentage point'.[10]

See also

References

  1. ^ Otrok, Christopher (2001). "On measuring the welfare cost of business cycles" (PDF). Journal of Monetary Economics. 47 (1): 61–92. doi:10.1016/S0304-3932(00)00052-0.
  2. ^ Imrohoroglu, Ayse. "welfare costs of business cycles" (PDF). The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics Online.
  3. ^ Barlevy, Gadi (2004). "The Cost of Business Cycles under Endogenous Growth" (PDF). American Economic Review. 94 (4): 964–990. doi:10.1257/0002828042002615. JSTOR 3592801.
  4. ^ a b c Yellen, Janet L.; Akerlof, George A. (January 1, 2006). "Stabilization policy: a reconsideration". Economic Inquiry. 44: 1–22. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.298.6467. doi:10.1093/ei/cbj002.
  5. ^ Galí, Jordi; Gertler, Mark; López-Salido, J. David (2007). "Markups, Gaps, and the Welfare Costs of Business Fluctuations". Review of Economics and Statistics. 98 (1): 44–59. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.384.1686. doi:10.1162/rest.89.1.44.
  6. ^ a b c Lucas, Robert E., Jr. (2003). "Macroeconomic Priorities". American Economic Review. 93 (1): 1–14. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.366.2404. doi:10.1257/000282803321455133.
  7. ^ Latty (2011) A note on the relationship between the Atkinson index and the Generalised entropy class of decomposable inequality indexes under the assumption of log-normality of income distribution or volatility, https://www.academia.edu/1816869/A_note_on_the_relationship_between_the_Atkinson_index_and_the_generalised_entropy_class_of_decomposable_inequality_indexes_under_the_assumption_of_log-normality_of_income_distribution_or_volatility
  8. ^ Mehra, Rajnish; Prescott, Edward C. (1985). "The Equity Premium: A Puzzle". Journal of Monetary Economics. 15 (2): 145–161. doi:10.1016/0304-3932(85)90061-3.
  9. ^ Grant, S.; Quiggin, J. (2005). "What does the equity premium mean?". The Economists' Voice. 2 (4): Article 2. doi:10.2202/1553-3832.1088.
  10. ^ Justin Wolfers, “Is Business Cycle Volatility Costly? Evidence from Surveys of Subjective Wellbeing,” Working Paper (National Bureau of Economic Research, April 2003), https://doi.org/10.3386/w9619