유전자변형카놀라

Genetically modified canola

유전적으로 조작된 카놀라는 유전적으로 조작된 작물이다. 첫 번째 변종인 Roundup Ready canola는 몬산토가 흔히 사용하는 제초제 Roundup의 활성 성분인 글리포세이트에 대한 내성을 위해 개발했다.

유전자 변형

글리포세이트는 전 세계에서 재배되는 상업용 작물과 경쟁하는 것으로 알려진 잡초와 풀을 죽이는 데 사용되는 광폭 제초제다. 첫 제품은 1970년대에 'Roundup'이라는 이름으로 시장에 나왔다. 글리포세이트에 노출된 식물은 방향족 아미노산을 생산하지 못하고 결국 죽는다.[1]

라운드업 레디 카놀라를 생산하기 위해, 두 개의 유전자가 카놀라 게놈에 도입되었다. 하나는 EPSPS 효소를 위해 암호화된 흔한 토양 박테리아 아그로박테리움 균주 CP4에서 파생된 유전자다. 다른 하나는 Ochrobactrum againi 변종 LBAA에서 나온 유전자로 글리포산염 산화효소(Glphosate oxidase, GOX)를 암호화하고 있다. CP4 EPSPS 효소는 글리포세이트에 높은 내성을 부여하기 때문에 식물들은 글리포세이트를 바른 후에도 방향족 아미노산을 만들 수 있다. GOX는 식물 안에서 글리포세이트를 분해하는 것을 돕는다.[2]

규정

주요기사 : 유전자 변형 유기체 방류 규정

유전자 조작 작물은 전 세계적으로 상당한 양의 규제를 받는다.

GM 작물이 미국 내 방류 승인을 받으려면 미국 농무부(USDA) 내 동물·식물위생검사소(APIS) 기관이 평가해야 하며, 의도된 용도에 따라 식품의약품안전청(FDA)과 환경보호기관(EPA)에서도 평가할 수 있다. USDA는 그 식물이 잡초가 될 가능성을 평가한다. FDA는 식량이나 동물 사료로 사용되는 농작물을 규제한다.[3][4] GM 카놀라의 최대 [5]생산국인 캐나다에서는 GM 작물이 건강 캐나다에 의해 식품 및 의약품법에 의해 규제되고 있으며, 캐나다 식품검사국은[6] 유전자변형 식품의 안전성과 영양가치를 평가할 책임이 있다. 생명공학에서 유래한 발전소의 환경평가는 CFIA의 생물안전성 사무소(PBO)가 수행한다.[7] 글리포세이트와 글루포세이트-광택제 카놀라는 캐나다에서 처음으로 승인을 받은 GM 공장 두 곳이었다.[8] 호주에서 Roundup Ready Canola는 2003년 Gene Technology Regulator에 의해 약 400개의 테스트와 연구를 거쳐 상업적 생산 승인을 받았다. 식품표준 호주뉴질랜드도 같은 해 이 제품이 인간의 소비에 안전하다고 승인했다.[9]

논란

주요 기사: 유전자 조작 식품 논란

기존 작물 대신 유전자 변형 작물에서 유래한 식품 및 기타 물품의 사용과 식품 생산에 유전자 공학을 사용한 것에 대한 논란이 존재한다. 이 분쟁은 소비자, 생명공학 회사, 정부 규제 기관, 비정부 단체, 과학자들과 관련이 있다. GMO 식품과 관련된 논란의 핵심 분야는 라벨 부착 여부, 정부 규제당국의 역할, 과학 연구 및 출판의 객관성, GM 작물이 건강과 환경에 미치는 영향, 농약 저항성에 미치는 영향, 농가에 대한 GM 작물의 영향, 전 세계 식량 공급에 GM 작물의 역할 등이다. 인구

현재 GM 작물에서 파생된 가용 식품은 재래식 식품보다 인간의 건강에 더 큰 위험을 주지는 않지만,[14][15][16][17][18] 각각의 GM 식품은 도입 전에 사례별로 시험할 필요가 있다는[10][11][12][13] 과학적 공감대가 있다.[19][20][21] 그럼에도 불구하고, 일반 대중들은 유전자 조작 식품이 안전하다고 생각하는 과학자들보다 훨씬 덜하다.[22][23][24][25] GM 식품의 법적, 규제적 상태는 국가별로 다르며, 일부 국가는 금지 또는 제한하고, 다른 국가는 규제 정도가 크게 다른 것을 허용한다.[26][27][28][29]

그린피스, 비GMO 프로젝트, 유기농소비자협회 등 옹호단체들은 GM 식품의 리스크가 제대로 파악되고 관리되지 않고 있다며 규제 당국의 객관성에 의문을 제기하고 있다. 그들은 규제 당국의 객관성과 규제 과정의 엄격성, 비GM 식품 공급의 오염,[30] GMO가 환경과 자연에 미치는 영향에 대한, GMO를 제조하고 판매하는 회사의 식품 공급 통제 통합에 대한 우려를 표명했다.[31]

저항 문제

참고 항목: 글리포세이트 § 저항성

농업에서 글리포세이트의 의존도가 높기 때문에 이 화학물질에 대한 내성이 문제가 되고 있으며 호주, 미국, 캐나다 전역에 널리 퍼져 있다.[32][33]

둥글게 뭉친 카놀라는 당화 저항성 때문에 다른 작물에서도 잡초로 떠올랐다. 이는 카놀라 씨앗이 토양에서 최대 10년까지 휴면할 수 있기 때문이다. 캘리포니아에서는 이 화학물질에 대한 면화, 포도의 민감성 등 작물로 인해 주에서 사용되는 페녹시 제초제에 대한 제약 때문에 이런 면에서 상당한 문제가 되고 있다.[34]

참조

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  2. ^ Monsanto. "What is Roundup Ready canola?" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 November 2020. Retrieved 8 November 2013.
  3. ^ "Questions & Answers on Food from Genetically Engineered Plants". fda.gov.
  4. ^ "FDA page on Regulation of GM Plants in Animal Feed".
  5. ^ GMO 컴퍼스는 2010년 7월 27일 웨이백 머신에 2017년 3월 29일 보관되었다. 2010년 8월 6일 검색됨
  6. ^ Government of Canada, Canadian Food Inspection Agency (20 March 2015). "Plants with novel traits: Information for the general public". inspection.canada.ca.
  7. ^ 유전자 변형 식품.
  8. ^ Biden, Scott; Smyth, Stuart J.; Hudson, David (2 January 2018). "The economic and environmental cost of delayed GM crop adoption: The case of Australia's GM canola moratorium". GM Crops & Food. Taylor & Francis. 9 (1): 13–20. doi:10.1080/21645698.2018.1429876. ISSN 2164-5698. PMC 5927647.
  9. ^ "Fact Sheet - GMOs approved for commercial release in Australia: GM Canola". Australian Government. Archived from the original on 22 March 2014. Retrieved 8 November 2013.
  10. ^ Nicolia, Alessandro; Manzo, Alberto; Veronesi, Fabio; Rosellini, Daniele (2013). "An overview of the last 10 years of genetically engineered crop safety research" (PDF). Critical Reviews in Biotechnology. 34 (1): 77–88. doi:10.3109/07388551.2013.823595. PMID 24041244. S2CID 9836802. We have reviewed the scientific literature on GE crop safety for the last 10 years that catches the scientific consensus matured since GE plants became widely cultivated worldwide, and we can conclude that the scientific research conducted so far has not detected any significant hazard directly connected with the use of GM crops.

    The literature about Biodiversity and the GE food/feed consumption has sometimes resulted in animated debate regarding the suitability of the experimental designs, the choice of the statistical methods or the public accessibility of data. Such debate, even if positive and part of the natural process of review by the scientific community, has frequently been distorted by the media and often used politically and inappropriately in anti-GE crops campaigns.
  11. ^ "State of Food and Agriculture 2003–2004. Agricultural Biotechnology: Meeting the Needs of the Poor. Health and environmental impacts of transgenic crops". Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Retrieved 30 August 2019. Currently available transgenic crops and foods derived from them have been judged safe to eat and the methods used to test their safety have been deemed appropriate. These conclusions represent the consensus of the scientific evidence surveyed by the ICSU (2003) and they are consistent with the views of the World Health Organization (WHO, 2002). These foods have been assessed for increased risks to human health by several national regulatory authorities (inter alia, Argentina, Brazil, Canada, China, the United Kingdom and the United States) using their national food safety procedures (ICSU). To date no verifiable untoward toxic or nutritionally deleterious effects resulting from the consumption of foods derived from genetically modified crops have been discovered anywhere in the world (GM Science Review Panel). Many millions of people have consumed foods derived from GM plants - mainly maize, soybean and oilseed rape - without any observed adverse effects (ICSU).
  12. ^ Ronald, Pamela (1 May 2011). "Plant Genetics, Sustainable Agriculture and Global Food Security". Genetics. 188 (1): 11–20. doi:10.1534/genetics.111.128553. PMC 3120150. PMID 21546547. There is broad scientific consensus that genetically engineered crops currently on the market are safe to eat. After 14 years of cultivation and a cumulative total of 2 billion acres planted, no adverse health or environmental effects have resulted from commercialization of genetically engineered crops (Board on Agriculture and Natural Resources, Committee on Environmental Impacts Associated with Commercialization of Transgenic Plants, National Research Council and Division on Earth and Life Studies 2002). Both the U.S. National Research Council and the Joint Research Centre (the European Union's scientific and technical research laboratory and an integral part of the European Commission) have concluded that there is a comprehensive body of knowledge that adequately addresses the food safety issue of genetically engineered crops (Committee on Identifying and Assessing Unintended Effects of Genetically Engineered Foods on Human Health and National Research Council 2004; European Commission Joint Research Centre 2008). These and other recent reports conclude that the processes of genetic engineering and conventional breeding are no different in terms of unintended consequences to human health and the environment (European Commission Directorate-General for Research and Innovation 2010).
  13. ^

    그러나 다음 항목을 참조하십시오.

    Domingo, José L.; Bordonaba, Jordi Giné (2011). "A literature review on the safety assessment of genetically modified plants" (PDF). Environment International. 37 (4): 734–742. doi:10.1016/j.envint.2011.01.003. PMID 21296423. In spite of this, the number of studies specifically focused on safety assessment of GM plants is still limited. However, it is important to remark that for the first time, a certain equilibrium in the number of research groups suggesting, on the basis of their studies, that a number of varieties of GM products (mainly maize and soybeans) are as safe and nutritious as the respective conventional non-GM plant, and those raising still serious concerns, was observed. Moreover, it is worth mentioning that most of the studies demonstrating that GM foods are as nutritional and safe as those obtained by conventional breeding, have been performed by biotechnology companies or associates, which are also responsible of commercializing these GM plants. Anyhow, this represents a notable advance in comparison with the lack of studies published in recent years in scientific journals by those companies.

    Krimsky, Sheldon (2015). "An Illusory Consensus behind GMO Health Assessment". Science, Technology, & Human Values. 40 (6): 883–914. doi:10.1177/0162243915598381. S2CID 40855100. I began this article with the testimonials from respected scientists that there is literally no scientific controversy over the health effects of GMOs. My investigation into the scientific literature tells another story.

    그리고 대비:

    Panchin, Alexander Y.; Tuzhikov, Alexander I. (14 January 2016). "Published GMO studies find no evidence of harm when corrected for multiple comparisons". Critical Reviews in Biotechnology. 37 (2): 213–217. doi:10.3109/07388551.2015.1130684. ISSN 0738-8551. PMID 26767435. S2CID 11786594. Here, we show that a number of articles some of which have strongly and negatively influenced the public opinion on GM crops and even provoked political actions, such as GMO embargo, share common flaws in the statistical evaluation of the data. Having accounted for these flaws, we conclude that the data presented in these articles does not provide any substantial evidence of GMO harm.

    The presented articles suggesting possible harm of GMOs received high public attention. However, despite their claims, they actually weaken the evidence for the harm and lack of substantial equivalency of studied GMOs. We emphasize that with over 1783 published articles on GMOs over the last 10 years it is expected that some of them should have reported undesired differences between GMOs and conventional crops even if no such differences exist in reality.

    그리고

    Yang, Y.T.; Chen, B. (2016). "Governing GMOs in the USA: science, law and public health". Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture. 96 (4): 1851–1855. doi:10.1002/jsfa.7523. PMID 26536836. It is therefore not surprising that efforts to require labeling and to ban GMOs have been a growing political issue in the USA (citing Domingo and Bordonaba, 2011). Overall, a broad scientific consensus holds that currently marketed GM food poses no greater risk than conventional food... Major national and international science and medical associations have stated that no adverse human health effects related to GMO food have been reported or substantiated in peer-reviewed literature to date.

    Despite various concerns, today, the American Association for the Advancement of Science, the World Health Organization, and many independent international science organizations agree that GMOs are just as safe as other foods. Compared with conventional breeding techniques, genetic engineering is far more precise and, in most cases, less likely to create an unexpected outcome.
  14. ^ "Statement by the AAAS Board of Directors On Labeling of Genetically Modified Foods" (PDF). American Association for the Advancement of Science. 20 October 2012. Retrieved 30 August 2019. The EU, for example, has invested more than €300 million in research on the biosafety of GMOs. Its recent report states: "The main conclusion to be drawn from the efforts of more than 130 research projects, covering a period of more than 25 years of research and involving more than 500 independent research groups, is that biotechnology, and in particular GMOs, are not per se more risky than e.g. conventional plant breeding technologies." The World Health Organization, the American Medical Association, the U.S. National Academy of Sciences, the British Royal Society, and every other respected organization that has examined the evidence has come to the same conclusion: consuming foods containing ingredients derived from GM crops is no riskier than consuming the same foods containing ingredients from crop plants modified by conventional plant improvement techniques.

    Pinholster, Ginger (25 October 2012). "AAAS Board of Directors: Legally Mandating GM Food Labels Could "Mislead and Falsely Alarm Consumers"" (PDF). American Association for the Advancement of Science. Retrieved 30 August 2019.
  15. ^ A decade of EU-funded GMO research (2001–2010) (PDF). Directorate-General for Research and Innovation. Biotechnologies, Agriculture, Food. European Commission, European Union. 2010. doi:10.2777/97784. ISBN 978-92-79-16344-9. Retrieved 30 August 2019.
  16. ^ "AMA Report on Genetically Modified Crops and Foods (online summary)". American Medical Association. January 2001. Retrieved 30 August 2019. A report issued by the scientific council of the American Medical Association (AMA) says that no long-term health effects have been detected from the use of transgenic crops and genetically modified foods, and that these foods are substantially equivalent to their conventional counterparts. (from online summary prepared by ISAAA)" "Crops and foods produced using recombinant DNA techniques have been available for fewer than 10 years and no long-term effects have been detected to date. These foods are substantially equivalent to their conventional counterparts.

    (from original report by AMA: [1])     {{cite web}}: 외부 링크 위치 quote= (도움말)"REPORT 2 OF THE COUNCIL ON SCIENCE AND PUBLIC HEALTH (A-12): Labeling of Bioengineered Foods" (PDF). American Medical Association. 2012. Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 September 2012. Retrieved 30 August 2019. Bioengineered foods have been consumed for close to 20 years, and during that time, no overt consequences on human health have been reported and/or substantiated in the peer-reviewed literature.
  17. ^ "Restrictions on Genetically Modified Organisms: United States. Public and Scholarly Opinion". Library of Congress. 30 June 2015. Retrieved 30 August 2019. Several scientific organizations in the US have issued studies or statements regarding the safety of GMOs indicating that there is no evidence that GMOs present unique safety risks compared to conventionally bred products. These include the National Research Council, the American Association for the Advancement of Science, and the American Medical Association. Groups in the US opposed to GMOs include some environmental organizations, organic farming organizations, and consumer organizations. A substantial number of legal academics have criticized the US's approach to regulating GMOs.
  18. ^ National Academies Of Sciences, Engineering; Division on Earth Life Studies; Board on Agriculture Natural Resources; Committee on Genetically Engineered Crops: Past Experience Future Prospects (2016). Genetically Engineered Crops: Experiences and Prospects. The National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine (US). p. 149. doi:10.17226/23395. ISBN 978-0-309-43738-7. PMID 28230933. Retrieved 30 August 2019. Overall finding on purported adverse effects on human health of foods derived from GE crops: On the basis of detailed examination of comparisons of currently commercialized GE with non-GE foods in compositional analysis, acute and chronic animal toxicity tests, long-term data on health of livestock fed GE foods, and human epidemiological data, the committee found no differences that implicate a higher risk to human health from GE foods than from their non-GE counterparts.
  19. ^ "Frequently asked questions on genetically modified foods". World Health Organization. Retrieved 30 August 2019. Different GM organisms include different genes inserted in different ways. This means that individual GM foods and their safety should be assessed on a case-by-case basis and that it is not possible to make general statements on the safety of all GM foods.

    GM foods currently available on the international market have passed safety assessments and are not likely to present risks for human health. In addition, no effects on human health have been shown as a result of the consumption of such foods by the general population in the countries where they have been approved. Continuous application of safety assessments based on the Codex Alimentarius principles and, where appropriate, adequate post market monitoring, should form the basis for ensuring the safety of GM foods.
  20. ^ Haslberger, Alexander G. (2003). "Codex guidelines for GM foods include the analysis of unintended effects". Nature Biotechnology. 21 (7): 739–741. doi:10.1038/nbt0703-739. PMID 12833088. S2CID 2533628. These principles dictate a case-by-case premarket assessment that includes an evaluation of both direct and unintended effects.
  21. ^ 영국 의료협회를 포함한 일부 의료단체는 예방원칙에 근거한 추가적인 주의를 주장한다.

    "Genetically modified foods and health: a second interim statement" (PDF). British Medical Association. March 2004. Retrieved 30 August 2019. In our view, the potential for GM foods to cause harmful health effects is very small and many of the concerns expressed apply with equal vigour to conventionally derived foods. However, safety concerns cannot, as yet, be dismissed completely on the basis of information currently available.

    When seeking to optimise the balance between benefits and risks, it is prudent to err on the side of caution and, above all, learn from accumulating knowledge and experience. Any new technology such as genetic modification must be examined for possible benefits and risks to human health and the environment. As with all novel foods, safety assessments in relation to GM foods must be made on a case-by-case basis.

    Members of the GM jury project were briefed on various aspects of genetic modification by a diverse group of acknowledged experts in the relevant subjects. The GM jury reached the conclusion that the sale of GM foods currently available should be halted and the moratorium on commercial growth of GM crops should be continued. These conclusions were based on the precautionary principle and lack of evidence of any benefit. The Jury expressed concern over the impact of GM crops on farming, the environment, food safety and other potential health effects.

    The Royal Society review (2002) concluded that the risks to human health associated with the use of specific viral DNA sequences in GM plants are negligible, and while calling for caution in the introduction of potential allergens into food crops, stressed the absence of evidence that commercially available GM foods cause clinical allergic manifestations. The BMA shares the view that there is no robust evidence to prove that GM foods are unsafe but we endorse the call for further research and surveillance to provide convincing evidence of safety and benefit.
  22. ^ Funk, Cary; Rainie, Lee (29 January 2015). "Public and Scientists' Views on Science and Society". Pew Research Center. Retrieved 30 August 2019. The largest differences between the public and the AAAS scientists are found in beliefs about the safety of eating genetically modified (GM) foods. Nearly nine-in-ten (88%) scientists say it is generally safe to eat GM foods compared with 37% of the general public, a difference of 51 percentage points.
  23. ^ Marris, Claire (2001). "Public views on GMOs: deconstructing the myths". EMBO Reports. 2 (7): 545–548. doi:10.1093/embo-reports/kve142. PMC 1083956. PMID 11463731.
  24. ^ Final Report of the PABE research project (December 2001). "Public Perceptions of Agricultural Biotechnologies in Europe". Commission of European Communities. Archived from the original on 25 May 2017. Retrieved 30 August 2019.
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  26. ^ "Restrictions on Genetically Modified Organisms". Library of Congress. 9 June 2015. Retrieved 30 August 2019.
  27. ^ Bashshur, Ramona (February 2013). "FDA and Regulation of GMOs". American Bar Association. Archived from the original on 21 June 2018. Retrieved 30 August 2019.
  28. ^ Sifferlin, Alexandra (3 October 2015). "Over Half of E.U. Countries Are Opting Out of GMOs". Time. Retrieved 30 August 2019.
  29. ^ Lynch, Diahanna; Vogel, David (5 April 2001). "The Regulation of GMOs in Europe and the United States: A Case-Study of Contemporary European Regulatory Politics". Council on Foreign Relations. Archived from the original on 29 September 2016. Retrieved 30 August 2019.
  30. ^ Paull, John (2019) 유전자 변형 유기체에 의한 농장의 오염: 보상에 대한 옵션, Journal of Organics, 6:1:31-46.
  31. ^ "Monsanto ready to defend roundup ready canola". The Star Phoenix. 26 October 2004. ProQuest 348860116.
  32. ^ "Resisting Roundup". The New York Times. 16 May 2010.
  33. ^ Preston, Chris (January 2010). "Roundup Ready Canola and Glyphosate Resistance". Australian Grain. 19: 6–7. Retrieved 8 November 2013.
  34. ^ Munier, Douglas; Brittan, Kent; UC Farm Advisors (December 2010). "Roundup ready canola as a resistant weed". Western Farm Press. Retrieved 8 November 2013.

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