카파도키아계 그리스인

Cappadocian Greeks
카파도키아계 그리스인
Έλληνες-Καππαδόκες
카파도키아랄레 루믈라
Flag of the Greek Orthodox Church.svg
이중 머리 비잔틴 독수리는 카파도키아인 그리스인들이 그들의 깃발로 자주 사용한다.
Cappadocian Greek dance.JPG
그리스 전통의상을 입은 카파도키아계 그리스인
총인구
~50,000
모집단이 유의한 지역
그리스(특히 그리스 북부)
그리스44,432명(자손을 포함한 5만 명 이상)[1] – 약 5만 명(1920년대 추정)[2]
언어들
그리스어, 카파도키아어, 카라만리 터키어
종교
그리스 정교회
관련 민족
폰틱 그리스인

Cappadocian 그리스인들 또한 카파도키아 바위 유적central-eastern Anatolia,[4][5]은 대략 Nevşehir도와 현대 터키의 주변 지역의 지리적 지역 그리스 Cappadocians(:Έλληνες-Καππαδόκες, Ελληνοκαππαδόκες, Καππαδόκες, 터키:Kapadokyalı Rumlar 그리스)[3]또는 단순히 Cappadocians 있는 민족 그리스 사회 출신으로 알려져 있다.. 고대부터 카파도키아에는 그리스어가 지속적으로 존재해 왔으며,[6] 인도유럽어 중 일부가 그리스어와 밀접한 관련이 있었을지도 모르는 카파도시아의 토착인구가 있었다(cf). 프리지아어)는 적어도 5세기에 이르러 완전히 그리스어를 구사하게 되었다.[7] 11세기에 중앙아시아에서 도착한 셀주크 투르크는 이 지역을 정복하여 언어와 종교의 점진적인 변화를 시작하였다. 1897년 추정에 따르면 코냐의 산작(山作)[8]그리스 총인구가 68.101명이었고, 1914년 오스만 인구 통계에 따르면 니에데의 산작(山作)은 그리스 총인구가 58.312명, 케이세리의 산작(山作)은 총 26.590명이었다. 1923년 터키의 소수민족 집단 학살 이후 살아남은 카파도키아 토착민들은 그리스인의 조건에 의해 조국을 떠나 현대 그리스에 정착할 수밖에 없었다.-터키식 인구 교환. 오늘날 그들의 후손들은 그리스 전역과 그리스 디아스포라 전 세계에서 찾아볼 수 있다.

역사적 배경

괴뢰메이트와 카파도키아 바위 유적지 근처의 아크테페 산(UNESCO 세계유산)

조기 마이그레이션

타이나의 아폴로니우스(1세기 광고)는 카파도키아 티아나 마을에서 온 그리스인 네오피타고라스의 필로소퍼다.

오늘날 카파도키아로 알려진 지역은 고대 페르시아인들에게 카파두카로 알려져 있었는데, 그리스인들이 카파도키아(카파도키아)로 개칭한 이름이다.[9]

그리스와 그리스 문화가 소아시아에 도착하기 전에 이 지역은 또 다른 인도유럽 민족인 히타이트에 의해 통제되었다. 미케네아 그리스인들은 기원전 1300년경 서해안을 따라 교역소를 설치했고 곧 해안을 식민화하면서 헬레니즘 문화와 언어를 전파하기 시작했다. 헬레니즘 시대에는 알렉산더 대왕의 아나톨리아 정복에 이어 그리스 정착민들이 이 시기에 카파도키아 산악지대에 도착하기 시작했다.[10] 기원전 3, 2세기의 그리스 인구 운동은 카파도키아에 그리스인의 존재를 확고히 했다. 그 결과 그리스어는 그 지역 토착민들의 언어 프랑카가 되었다. 그것은 3세기 안에 그 지역 주민들의 유일한 구어가 될 것이고 다음 천 년 동안 그렇게 남아 있을 것이다.[7]

알렉산더 대왕의 죽음 이후, 알렉산더 대왕의 디아도치 중 하나인 카르디아의 유메네스가 카파도시아의 삿갓으로 임명되어 그리스 정착지를 세우고 그의 동료들에게 도시를 분배하였다.[11] 에우메네스는 카파도키아에 행정관, 판사, 선택수비대 지휘관들을 남겨두고 떠났다. 이후 수세기 동안 셀레우시드 그리스 왕들은 아시아의 마이너 내부에 많은 그리스 정착촌을 세웠으며,[11] 이 지역은 군인들의 모집으로 유명해질 것이다. 그리스인들이 도시에 정착할 아시아 마이너 지역의 다른 지역과 달리, 카파도키아와 기타 내륙 아나톨리아 지역의 그리스 정착지는 대부분 마을이었다.[12] 헬레니즘 킹스는 이 휘발성 지역에 대한 그들의 지배를 확보하기 위해 카파도키아와 다른 주변 지역에 새로운 그리스 정착촌을 만들었는데,[13] 그들의 통치하에 아나톨리아 내륙에 그리스 정착촌이 증가할 것이다.[13]

카파도키아의 왕들. (왼쪽) 카파도키아(Ca. 163–130 BC)의 아리아라테스 5세(Ariarates V of Cappadocia, 기원전 163–130년)는 카파도시아의 가장 위대한 왕으로 여겨졌으며, 후손에 의해 주로 그리스인이었다. (오른쪽) 카파도키아(Cappadocia, 기원전 36년 – AD 17년)의 아클레오스는 카파도키아(Capadocia)의 마지막 왕이었으며 그리스 태생이었다.

알렉산더 대왕의 사후 수 세기 동안, 이전에는 카파도시아를 지배했던 페르시아 사트랩의 아들인 아리아라테스는 카파도시아를 장악하여, 주로 왕조 창시자의 이름을 가진 그의 후계자들의 한 줄에 맡겼다. 이 왕들은 셀레우키드 족과 같은 이웃 그리스 헬레니즘 왕국들과 결혼하기 시작했다. 그들의 통치 기간 동안 그리스 도시들이 카파도키아 남부 지역에 나타나기 시작하고 있었다.[14] 기원전 163년부터 130년까지 통치했던 카파도키아 아리아라테스 5세는 카파도키아 왕 중 가장 위대한 왕으로 여겨진다.[15] 그는 주로 그리스계였고, 의 아버지 아리아라테스 4세그리스 마케도니아계[14] 반과 페르시아계였고, 어머니는 셀레우치드 왕조셀레우치드 그리스 왕 안티오코스 3세[16][17] 딸이었다.[18] 기원전 1세기까지 카파도키아 지역은 아르메니아 왕 티그라네스 대왕에 의해 황폐화되었는데, 그는 많은 수의 카파도키아와 카파도키아 그리스인들을 메소포타미아[19](현대의 이라크, 시리아 동부, 터키 남동부에서 지리학적으로)로 이주시켰다.

로마 시대

로마의 의뢰인 왕자였던 아르켈라우스카파도키아 왕으로서 마지막으로 통치했다. 그는 카파도키아 출신의 그리스 귀족으로,[20][21] 아마도 마케도니아 혈통일 것이고 완전히 비페르시아 혈통의 카파도키아 최초의 왕이었다.[22] 그는 로마를 위해 카파도시아를 점령한 티베리우스에게 퇴위당하기 전까지 여러 해 동안 카파도시아를 통치했다.[22] 카파도키아는 이 지역은 고대에, 티아나의 아폴로니오스.. 같은(1세기 광고) 잘하는 로마 제국에 알려지게 되었던 그리스 Neo-Pythagorean philosopher[23]과 Aretaeus 카파도키아의(81–138 AD)누구인지를 그리스 사람, 카파도키아에 태어나기가 최우선 제공하는 중의 몇가지 주목할 만한 그리스 사람들을 배출했다.협곡.ns 고대에 [24][25][26]관하여 그는 최초당뇨병과 당뇨인시피두스를 구별했고, 천식 발작에 대한 자세한 설명을 제공했다.[26][27]

중세 비잔틴 프레스코는 예수 그리스도를 12명의 사도들과 함께 묘사한 괴뢰카파도키아 록컷 교회에 있다.

고대에 이르러 카파도키아 그리스인들은 대부분 기독교로 개종했다.[28] 그들은 기독교에 대해 매우 독실한 신자였기 때문에 AD 1세기까지 카파도키아 지역은 기독교의 모나스틱리즘[29] 거점이 되었고 초기 기독교 역사에서 중요한 역할을 했다.[28] 공통시대 카파도키아 초기에는 3대 계급으로 알려진 그리스 전통주의 저명한 인물 세 명을 배출했다.[30] 그들은 카파도키아에 있는 카이사리아 주교인 바질 대왕(c. 330–79)이었다.[31] Nazianzus의 Gregory (C. 330–c. 389 AD)[32][33]Nysa의 Gregory (Died c. 394). 이들 4세기[34] 카파도키아인 그리스 아버지들은 고대 그리스 문화의 미덕 추구를 존경했으며, 심지어 호머헤시오드를 연구하기도 했으며, "그리스 문화의 전통에 정정당당하게 서 있었다"[35]고 했다.

동부 로마 시대

5세기까지 아나톨리아의 마지막 인도-유럽어 원주민 언어는 코인 그리스어대체되어 쓰이지 않게 되었다.[7] 동시에 중앙 아나톨리아의 그리스 공동체는 동로마 제국의 일에 적극적으로 관여하고 있었으며 모리스 티베리우스(r. 582–602)와 헤라클리우스와 같은 일부 그리스 카파도키아인들은 황제로까지 활동하게 되었다.[36][37]

이 지역은 이슬람의 출현 이후 비잔틴의 핵심 군사지구가 되었고 이에 뒤이어 이슬람이 시리아를 정복하면서 카파도키아 국경에 군국화된 국경지역(cf Kleisoura and thughur)이 설치되었다. 이는 아랍-바이잔틴 전쟁 중 7세기 중반에서 10세기 중반까지 지속되었는데, 이 변경 지역을 배경으로 한 중세 그리스의 영웅 서사시인 디제니스 아크리타스에서 불멸의 불멸을 가져왔다. 이 기간 동안 카파도시아는 제국에 결정적이 되어 수많은 비잔틴 장군들, 특히 포카스 가문, 군벌들(테프리카르베아스 참조), 음모를 배출했는데, 가장 중요한 것은 바울리안 이단이다. 그들이 그렇게 변덕스러운 지역에 살고 있었기 때문에 카파도키아 그리스인들은 동부 카파도키아 화산지대에 정교한 지하도시를 만들어 위험시기에 피난하곤 했다. 카파도키아 그리스인들은 9세기 아랍 침략자들부터 11세기 터키 정복자들, 15세기 몽골인들까지 다음 천년에 걸쳐 많은 침입자들로부터 이 바위투성이 지하도시에 숨어 있었다.[28][38][39] 20세기 후반까지만 해도 현지 카파도키아인 그리스인들은 오스만 박해의 주기적인 물결로부터 여전히 지하도시를 리푸게(그리스어: καταφύγγαα)로 사용하고 있었다.[40] 이들 고대 지하도시 중 가장 유명한 곳은 아나쿠이네기(ααακύύ)와 말라코피 멜라곱(μαλακήήήή)의 카파도키아 마을이다. 그리스인들은 1923년에 이 마을들에서 제거되었고, 현재는 데린쿠유케이마클리라고 알려져 있다. 이 지하 도시들은 80미터 이상의 깊이로 확장된 방을 가지고 있다.[28]

중세 카파도키아에는 수백 개의 정착지가 있었고 동부 카파도키아 화산지대에서 비잔틴 암벽이 깎인 교회들이 조각되었고, 페인트칠된 아이콘과 그리스 문자, 장식으로 장식되었다. 이들 교회 중 700개가 넘는[41] 교회가 발견되어 6세기부터 13세기 사이의 기간까지 많은 수도원과 교회들이 1920년대 그리스와 터키 사이의 인구 교환 때까지 계속 사용되었다.[28][29] 이러한 카파도키아 지역의 그리스 주민들은 트로글로디테스라고 불렸다. 10세기에 디콘 레오나이키포로스 포카스에 의해 카파도키아로 가는 여행을 기록했는데, 그의 글에서 그는 그 거주자들이 "밀집과 굴처럼 구멍, 갈라진 틈, 미로 속에 묻혀 있었다"는 사실에 비추어 트로글로디테스라고 불렸다고 언급한다.[42] 비잔틴인들은 7세기에서 11세기 사이에 카파도키아에 대한 통제를 다시 확립했는데, 이 시기에는 괴뢰와 소아믈라 지역의 절벽과 암벽에 교회가 조각되었다.[39] 중세에는 카파도키아인 그리스인들이 그들의 종교적인 인물을 수도원 안과 주변에 묻곤 했다. 최근 몇 년 동안 카파도시아의 버려진 그리스 수도원에서 미라로 만든 시체가 발견되었고, 니그데 고고학 박물관에 미라로 만든 아기들의 시체를 포함한 많은 시체가 전시되고 있다. 젊은 기독교 여성의 미라로 잘 보존된 시체가 관광객들에게 인기가 있다; 금발의 미라는 6세기부터 11세기까지 비잔틴 시대의 수녀로 여겨지고 있다.[43][44] 그것은 카파도키아 이하라 계곡의 6세기 그리스 예배당에서 발견되었다.[45] 10세기 동안 비잔틴 제국은 아르메니아 대부분의 지역을 포함한 아랍이 지배하던 이전 땅으로 동쪽으로 밀어 넣었고 수천 명의 아르메니아인들카파도키아 여러 지역으로 재정착했다. 이러한 인구 이동은 카파도키아 그리스인과 카파도키아에 새로 들어온 아르메니아인 사이의 민족적 긴장을 심화시켰고,[46] 아르메니아는 주로 원주민 방어자들이 부족하게 되었다.[46]

터키 카파도키아

바질 지아구페스(Bail Giagoupes, Bασεςςςςςςςςς),),),),),)는 럼의 셀주크 술탄의 술탄 메수드 2세의 군대에서 장군(아미르 아르지)의 궁정 직함을 갖고 있던 13세기 카파도키아 그리스의 불화 영주였다.

서기 1071년 비잔틴 제국은 아르메니아만지케르트 전투에서 상당한 패배를 당했다.[47][48] 이 패배는 아나톨리아 내부를 비잔틴 아시아 마이너스의 대부분을 지배할 중앙아시아셀주크 투르크에 의한 침공에 개방시킬 것이다.[47] 이로써 아시아 마이너(Asia Minor)는 전적으로 기독교적이고 압도적으로 그리스 인구가 많은 지역에서 주로 이슬람과 터키의 중심지로 변모하기 시작했다.[47][48] 아니와 아돔의 가기크, 바스푸라칸의 아부 사를 포함한 몇몇 아르메니아 왕족들은 비잔틴인들의 아르메니아인들과 시리아크 모노피시스를 박해한 후 지역 그리스 정교회 인구에 대한 복수를 꾀했다.[49] 셀주크 정복에서 제공한 기회를 이용해 그리스인들을 목표로 삼았고, 고문한 뒤 그리스 정교회 메트로폴리탄 카이세리를 암살하고 부유한 그리스 소유의 땅을 약탈했다.[49] 지역 그리스의 지주들은 결국 아르메니아 왕족 가기크를 죽였다.[49]

12세기에 이르러 모든 아나톨리아는 중앙아시아의 투르크멘 부족들에 의해 지배되었다.[7] 이 침략 유목민들은 아나톨리아의 많은 지역에 원주민 그리스인들을 제거했다.[50] 아나톨리아 그리스 인구는 터키 통치 하에서 이슬람으로의 대량 전환, 살육, 유럽의 그리스 영토로의 망명 등으로 급격히 감소했다.[51] 터키가 아나톨리아로 이주하기 전에는 그리스인들은 물론 소수의 아르메니아인, 시리아인, 조지아인들도 모두 기독교인이었지만, 15세기 무렵에는 아나톨리아의 90% 이상이 이슬람교도였다고 일부 연구자들은[52] 밝혔다. 20세기 초 아나톨리아 인구의 기독교인 비율이 20%를 [53]넘었지만 많은 비잔틴 그리스 지도자들은 오스만 터키 귀족에 가입하기 위해 이슬람교로 개종하려는 유혹도 받았다.[52] 아시아의 터키 통치 수 세기 동안 소수의 그리스인들과 아르메니아인, 쿠르드인과 같은 아나톨리아의 다른 민족들은 터키어를 채택하여 이슬람으로 개종하여 터키인으로 확인되었다.[54] 아나톨리아의 혼란에도 불구하고 13세기까지 카파도키아, 리카오니아, 팜필리아 등의 그리스인들은 투르크만 유목민들의 압력에도 불구하고 수적으로 남아 있었으며, 이는 일부 도시 중심지에서는 아마도 주요한 역할을 하고 있을 것이다.[50] 이 혼란스러운 시기 동안 일부 원주민 카파도키아계 그리스인들이 터키 유목민들의 침략에 가담했다는 증거가 있다. Some even managing to rise to levels of prominence in the Seljuq Sultanate of Rum, such as Basil Giagoupes (Bασίλειος Γιαγούπης), a wealthy Cappadocian Greek feudatory lord of a strongly Greek district who held the court title of general (amir arzi) in the army of the Seljuq sultan of Konya, Mesud II.[55] 그는 자신의 초상화가 살아 남아 있는 페리스테마(Belisrrma) 계곡에 교회를 봉헌했다. 13세기 카파도키아 미술가들은 자연주의 회화로 유명했고 셀주크 제국 전역에 고용되었다.[56] 1271년 괴크 메드레세(시바스) 건축을 의뢰받은 칼로 이안니(Kalo Yianni)와 같은 카파도키아인 그리스인도 건축가로 고용되었다.

단단한 돌 절벽 면에 새겨진 버려진 그리스 정교회 교회들, 괴프레미 오픈 에어 박물관, 카파도키아, 네브셰히르/터키.

15세기 동안 오스만 투르크 족이 셀주크 투르크 족으로부터 카파도시아를 정복한 동안 카파도키아 시골은 오스만 정복 이후에도 아르메니아 인구가 적은 그리스 인구를 대부분 유지했다.[39] 오스만 술탄 무라드 3세 (1574년 ~ 1595년) 통치 기간 동안 카파도키아 지역은 점진적인 변혁 과정을 통해 문화와 언어에서 크게 투르크화된 지역이 되었으며,[57][58] 그 결과 카파도시아의 많은 그리스인들이 터키의 자국어를 받아들였고 후에 '카라만라이데스'로 알려지게 되었다. 이 이름은 카파도키아 지역에서 유래되었는데, 카파도키아 그리스인들은 이 지역을 고대 그리스 이름인 '라란다'라고 계속 불렀지만, 터키계 지파인 카라만글루를 기리기 위해 터키인들이 카라만이라고 불렀다.[59] 이 투르코폰 그리스인들콘스탄티노플과 흑해 지역에도 중요한 공동체가 있었지만 주로 카라마니아 지역에 살았다.[60][61] 카파도시아의 접근성이 떨어지는 외딴 마을에 사는 카파도키아계 그리스인들은 고립되어 있었고, 결과적으로 국경 지대가 이슬람과 터키어로의 빠른 전환에 의해 영향을 덜 받았기 때문에 그리스어와 기독교인으로 남아 있었다.[62][63] 그리스 카파도키아인들은 중세에는 '하기오스 프로코피오스'로 알려진 마을과 같이 오스만 시대에 터키 이름으로 개칭된 카파도키아 여러 지역의 원래 그리스 이름을 그대로 간직하고 있었으며, 터키인에 의해 '우르그업'으로 개칭된 이름은 여전히 20세기 초 현지 그리스인에 의해 '프로코피온'으로 불렸다.[64]

프레스코 인 세인트 터키 카파도키아에 있는 존(Gül johnehir) 교회

비록 카라만리데스가 터키어를 배울 때 그리스어를 버렸지만, 그들은 그리스 정교회 기독교인으로 남아 그리스 알파벳을 사용하여 글을 계속 썼다.[65] 그들은 '카라만리디카'로 알려진 그리스 알파벳을 사용하여 터키어로 원고 작품을 인쇄했다.[61] 이것은 카파도키아에 살고 있는 많은 아르메니아인들도 언어학적으로 투르크화 되어있기 때문에 카파도키아계 그리스 카라만리데스에 국한된 현상이 아니었다. 그들은 아르메니아계 사도교(정통) 기독교인으로 남아 있지만 여전히 아르메니아계 알파벳을 사용하고 있음에도 불구하고 터키어로 말하고 썼다.[61] 오스만 제국의 일부 유대인 거주민들도 투르크어였고, 종교는 유지했지만, 터키어로도 썼지만 히브리 문자를 사용했다.[66] 오스만 제국의 카파도키아인 그리스인, 아르메니아인, 유대인 소수민족은 그들만의 문학적 전통을 발전시켜 그라코-터키어, 아르메노-터키어, 유대-터키어 문학을 창안했다.[66] 투르크화 이후 자국어에 대한 모든 지식을 잃었음에도 불구하고 카라만리데스의 대다수와 많은 투르크폰 아르메니아인들은 결국 본래의 모국어를 부활시켰다.[61][67] 대부분의 카파도키아계 그리스인들은 정교회 기독교인으로 남아 있었지만 상당수의 카라만라이드인들은 이 기간 동안 이슬람교로 개종하기까지 했다.[57] 다른 그리스 사회와 마찬가지로, 이슬람교로 개종한 이들 개종자들은 "터키인"으로 여겨졌는데,[68] 이슬람교인이 되는 것은 오스만 제국의 그리스인들에게 터키인이 되는 것과 동의어였기 때문이다. 그리스 작가들은 이슬람으로 개종한 그리스어를 '투르쿠운'(Tourkeuoun)이나 터키인이 되는 것으로 잘못 묘사할 것이다.[68] 술탄들의 왕국을 찾는 유럽 관광객들은 또한 어떤 이슬람교도도 그의 모국어와 상관없이 주관적으로 "터크"라고 칭할 것이다.[69] 그리스인들은 이슬람으로 개종하고 원래의 기독교 종교를 '잃어버림'으로써 그 개인도 그리스 민족 공동체에서 발을 내딛고 있다고 믿었다. 이런 사고방식은 오스만 제국이 해체된 지 몇 년이 지나도 유행했다.[68]

오스만 통치 기간 동안 중앙 아나톨리아에서는 많은 인구 이동이 일어났다.[70] 1571년 오스만이 키프로스를 정복한 이후 오스만 술탄 셀림 1세는 카파도키아, 특히 카이세리 지역에서 키프로스로 그리스인들을 이양하기로 결정했다.[71][72] 이 기간 동안 그리스 태생이며 카파도키아 출신 건축가 시난은 술탄에게 그의 가족이 이 인구 이동에서 벗어나기를 요청하는 편지를 썼다.[72][73] 오스만 시대에 카파도키아 그리스인들은 사업을 하기 위해 콘스탄티노플과 다른 대도시로 이주하곤 했다. 19세기까지, 많은 사람들은 부유하고, 교육받고, 서구화되었다. 부유한 카파도키아 사업가들은 카르발리(현대 귄젤리우트)와 같은 카파도키아 지역에 거대한 석조 저택을 지었는데, 그 중 많은 것들은 오늘날에도 여전히 볼 수 있다.[74][75] 카파도키아계 그리스인들은 19세기 오스만 제국에서 그리스 알파벳과 터키어를 사용하여 가장 먼저 출판된 소설을 썼다.[58] 다른 지역에서 온 카파도키아 그리스인들은 캐비어 무역과 같은 특정한 직업을 전문으로 할 것이다.[76] 데메트리오스 찰스 볼거는 나중에 그들의 작품 성격을 이렇게 묘사한다. "각 마을은 콘스탄티노플에 있는 어떤 특정한 길드와 연결되어 있다. 한 길드는 바칼이나 작은 가게 주인, 또 다른 포도주와 양주를 파는 사람, 또 다른 물고기 건조기, 또 다른 캐비아레 제조업자, 또 다른 짐꾼 등을 공급한다."[77]

모던

1902년 카파도키아 케이세리 케르미라(게르미르)에서 열린 카파도키아 그리스 결혼.
지하도시의 한 통로

20세기 초, 그리스의 정착지는 오늘날 대부분의 터키에 여전히 많고 널리 퍼져 있었다.[78][79] 카파도키아와 리카오니아 지방은 그리스 정착지가 많고 카이세리, 나이그데, 코냐와 같은 도시 중심지에 상당한 인구가 살고 있었다.[78] 1897년 추정에 따르면 코냐의 산작(sanjak)은 그리스 총인구가 68.101명(6.6%)으로 나타났으며, 1914년 오스만 인구 통계에 따르면 니에데의 산작(sanjak)은 그리스 총인구가 58.312명(20%), 케이세리의 산작(sanjak)이 26.590명(10.1%)[8]으로 나타났다. 19세기와 20세기의 카파도키아 그리스인들은 민화의 풍부함과 고대 그리스어의 언어 보존으로 유명했다.[80]

지하 도시들은 터키의 이슬람 통치자들로부터 계속 리푸게(카파도키아어: καταφγα)로 사용되었다.[40] 20세기 후반까지 현지인들은 오스만 박해의 주기적인 파도를 피하기 위해 여전히 지하 도시들을 이용하고 있었다.[40] 1909~1911년 이 지역에서 카포도키아 원주민에 대한 연구를 수행한 케임브리지 언어학자 도킨스는 1909년,

최근 아다나에서 일어난 학살 소식이 전해졌을 때, 악소 인구의 상당수는 이 지하실로 피신했고, 며칠 밤 동안 땅 위에서 감히 잠을 이루지 못했다.

19세기 카파도시아를 통과하는 학자들은 카파도키아 그리스인들과 그들의 습관에 대해 기술했다. 1838년 영국의 학자 로버트 아인스워스는 "카파도키아 그리스인들은 일반적으로 말해서 그들의 예절을 즐겁게 하고 거리낌없이 말하고 있으며, 그들의 대화는 매우 높은 수준의 지능과 문명을 나타냈는데, 그곳에는 책이 거의 없고, 교육도 거의 없으며, 결과적으로 배움도 거의 없었다"[81]고 썼다. 1879년부터 1882년까지 아나톨리아 주재 영국 총영사 찰스 윌리엄 윌슨 경은 그들의 성격을 다음과 같이 설명했다.

카파도키아 그리스인들은 에너지와 상업 활동으로 아시아 전역에 명성을 가지고 있다; 카이사리예에서 온 상인이 발견되지 않는 도시는 거의 없다; 그리고 이 나라의 바위투성이의 자연은 가난한 계층들까지도 다른 곳에서 그들의 생계를 추구하도록 만든다. 아마도 이 그리스인들의 성격에서 가장 흥미로운 특성은 모국에 대한 그들의 강렬한 사랑일 것이다; 모든 사람의 큰 야망은 그가 집을 짓고 사랑하는 카파도키아에 정착할 수 있도록 충분한 돈을 버는 것이다. 젊은 남자들은 콘스탄티노폴리스로 가서 몇 년 간 다시 결혼해서 집을 짓는다. 결혼한 지 몇 년이 되면 저축의 끝을 보게 되고, 때로는 10년이나 15년이면 수도를 다시 방문하여 남은 여생 동안 자신과 아내를 부양하기에 충분한 돈을 벌어야 한다.서부 해안의 그리스인들 사이에 득세하는 것 같은 뚜렷한 정치적 열망은 없다; 그들은 새로운 비잔틴 제국의 꿈을 꾸지만, 돈과 이득에 대한 모든 것에 몰두할 수 있는 동정심은 러시아인들에게 바친다. 남부 카파도키아 지방, 세인트. 나치안주스의 그레고리는 한때는 번영의 많은 징후를 보였다; 건축은 계속되고 있고 사람들은 그들의 믿음과 언어를 보존해야 할 지하 마을인 땅 위의 집들을 위해 떠나고 있다. 이 마을들은 터키어 이름뿐만 아니라 그리스어로도 알려져 있다; 어떤 마을에서는 모슬렘과 기독교인이, 어떤 마을에서는 그라코-터크 전문용어가, 또 다른 마을에서는 터키어로만 쓰인다; 그리고 이 혼합물은 교회에서도 발견되는데, 성스러운 그림에 대한 서술문은 종종 그리스어로 쓰여진 터키어로 쓰여진다.[82]

박해와 인구교류

1900년대 초까지 카파도키아 지역에는 여전히 기독교 카파도키아인 그리스인뿐만 아니라 무슬림 투르크인[42], 아르메니아인과 쿠르드인 공동체가 거주하고 있었다. 제1차 세계대전이 시작될 무렵 아나톨리아의 그리스인들은 젊은 터키인들에게 포위되었다.[83] 수천 명의 그리스인들이 학살되었고,[83] 약 75만 명의 아나톨리아 그리스인들이 대량학살, 75만 명이 추방되었다.[79][84] 그리스인들은 아르메니아인들아시리아인들에 앞서서 그리고 함께 표적이 되었다. 이오니아인과 카파도키아인 그리스인 사망자만 39만7000명, 폰트인 그리스인 사망자만 35만3000명에 이른다.[79] 터키 관계자 Rafet Bey은 애나 토울리아 내부의 그리스인들의 집단 학살에, 11월 1916년에 그는" 했던 것처럼으로 Armenians…today 나는 내부에 sight…에 모든 Greek을 죽일 선수 명단을 보냈다 우리는 그리스인들에서 끝내야 한다"[85]은 그리스-터키 전쟁 동안(1919–1922)그리스인들의 수가 투르크가 추방했다고 말했다 활동적이었다 t.t입니다많은 사람들이 죽은 메소포타미아 사막.[85] 1917년 1월 31일 독일의 테오발트 폰 베스만 홀웨그 총리는 다음과 같이 보고했다.

터키인들이 앞서 아르메니아인들과 같이 그리스 원소를 국가의 적으로 제거하려는 계획을 세우고 있다는 징후가 보인다. 터키인들이 시행하는 전략은 사람을 죽음과 굶주림, 질병에 노출시켜 생존을 위한 조치를 취하지 않고 내륙으로 대체하는 것이다. 그 버려진 집들은 약탈당하고 불에 타거나 파괴된다. 아르메니아인들에게 무슨 짓을 했든 그리스인들에게 반복되고 있다.[85]

1924년, 카파도키아에서 years,[6]나머지 Cappadocian 그리스인 수천명의 산 후에 그리스로 그리스와 터키 사이의 인구 교환 조약 Lausanne,[5]의 Cappadocian 그리스인들의 이슬람교로 개종했다 그 후손들은 인구 교환에 포함되지 않았던 정의된 일환으로 C에 남아 있지 쫓겨 났다.appadocia,[86] 몇몇은 여전히 카파도키아어를 사용한다. 그리스인이 도시 인구의 상당 부분을 차지함에 따라 무스타파파파파파파(시나소스), 위르귀프, 귀젤리우르트, 네브셰히르 등 많은 카파도키아 도시들이 그리스인들의 추방으로 큰 영향을 받았다.[74] 카파도키아인 그리스인들은 그리스로 선적되기 위해 메르신 해안도시로 끌려갔다. 많은 사람들이 부패한 관리들과 약탈자들 때문에 그들의 모든 재산을 잃어버릴 것이다.[74] 카파도키아에서 이주하고 있던 카파도키아 그리스인들은 그리스 본토, 주로 트라스에서 이주해 온 무슬림들로 대체되었다. 이들 이슬람교도들 중 일부는 그리스인(그리스 무슬림 참조)이었지만 대부분은 슬라브인, 터키인, 집시 출신이었다. 1920년대 그리스인들이 인구 교환을 떠난 후 카파도키아 그리스 교회들 중 많은 곳이 모스크로 개종되었다. 여기에는 오늘날 "부이크 킬리스 카미이([87]Buuuk Kilise Camii)"로 알려진 성 그레고리오 교회가 포함된다.

카파도치아 그리스 체육 신학교 팀 「아르가이오스」(1907). 이 팀은 카파도키아에서 유명한 화산아르고스 산의 이름을 따서 지어졌다.

인구교류에 이어 지금도 터키에 살고 있는 카파도키아계 그리스인들의 상당한 공동체가 콘스탄티노플[61]정착하여 오스만 시대에 정착하여 원주민 공동체의 거주지를 형성하였는데,[60] 1955년 반그리스인 이스탄불 포그롬 폭동이 일어나자 대다수도 그리스로 이주하였다. 그리스 본토에 도착한 많은 카파도키아 그리스인들은 원래 카파도키아 마을과 비슷한 마을에 정착했다; 새로운 정착지는 카파도키아에 남겨진 마을과 마을들의 이름을 따서 "네아"(New)라는 단어가 더해졌다. 예를 들어, 그리스의 에우보에아 섬의 북쪽에 정착한 시나소스(현재의 우르귀프 근처의 무스타파파파파파) 출신의 카파도키아인 그리스인들은 그들의 새로운 정착지를 네아 시나소스의 "뉴 시나소스"라고 명명했다. 다른 예로는 그리스 북부의 네아 카르발리, 중부 그리스의 네오 프로코피 등이 있다.[1] 카파도키아계 그리스인들이 상당히 많이 정착한 그리스의 지역은 카르디차, 볼로스, 킬키스, 라리사, 세키디키, 카발라, 알렉산드로폴리, 테살로니키 등이다.[88] 오늘날 카파도키아 그리스인들의 후손들은 그리스 전역뿐만 아니라, 특히 그리스 디아스포라의 일부로서 서유럽, 북아메리카, 호주에서 발견될 수 있다.

현대 카파도키아 지역은 괴뢰와 소안리 계곡에서 절벽과 바위 면에 새겨진 교회들로 유명하다.[39] 이 지역은 관광객들에게 인기가 있는데,[41] 관광객들 중 많은 이들은 수세기 전에 카파도키아인 그리스인들이 조각하고 장식한 버려진 지하도시와 집, 그리스 교회들을 방문한다. 그리스의 옛 도시 귄젤리우트(카르발리)는 수세기 전 부유한 카파도키아 사업가들이 지은 버려진 석조 저택을 찾는 관광객들에게 인기를 끌었다.[75] 오늘날, 700개 이상의 그리스 정교회와[41] 30개 이상의 암각화가 그려진 예배당들, 많은 사람들이 6세기까지 거슬러 올라가는 고대 이코노클라스틱 시대[39] 이전의 몇몇은 여전히 볼 수 있다.[28] 1985년 현재 이 그리스 동굴 교회들은 유네스코 세계문화유산으로 지정되었다.[89]

언어

1923년까지 아나톨리아어 그리스어 방언. 황색에 양민. 오렌지 색의 폰틱. 녹색의 카파도키아어, 1910년 개개의 카파도키아어 그리스어를 사용하는 마을을 나타내는 녹색 점이 있다.[90]
카파도키아 무스타파파사에 있는 그리스어 비문.

카파도키아계 그리스인들은 전통적으로 카파도키아계 그리스어로 알려진 그리스어의 사투리를 사용했다. 카파도키아어 그리스어는 11~12세기 터키의 중앙아시아 마이너 정복에서 출발하여 다른 비잔틴 그리스 방언에서 일찍이 이탈하여 명사에 대한 성별의 상실과 같은 몇 가지 급진적인 특징을 발전시켰다.[91] 그러나 십자군 정복(제4차 십자군)과 그리스 연안의 후기 베네치아 영향으로부터 고립되어 있던 그것은 데모틱 그리스어로 로망스어로 대체된 많은 단어들에 대해 고대 그리스어 용어를 유지했다.[91] 수세기 동안 오스만이 통치한 후 터키어는 카파도키아의 지배적인 언어로 부상하기 시작했다. 많은 그리스인들은 제2외국어로 터키와 이야기하며 2개 국어가 되었다. 항상 그리스의 웅변가들은“Kouvoukliotes”과 이 된 경우였다고 보았고, 강한 그리스 accent,[92]과 터키서가 Cappadocian 그리스인들만을 그리스세기 전에 Karamanlides으로 알려져 사용을 포기했다고 터키 언어를 사용하기 시작했다..[65] 20세기 초 카파도키아어(Cappadocian Gristian Language)는 여전히 네브세히르의 북서쪽 귈레히르(옛 아라비슨/아랍수)에서, 그리고 니에데보르만큼 남쪽 아래쪽에 있는 큰 지역에서 강한 존재감을 가지고 있었다.[28] 1915년의 대량 학살과 이후 인구 이동에 앞서 터키 중부 내륙의 고립된 공동체의 다른 마을들에서는 여전히 코냐 북서쪽의 실리(Pharasa)와 파라사(오늘날 현재 야히알레흐 지구의 차믈르카 마을)[28]에서도 그리스어가 쓰였다.[84] 많은 카파도키아 그리스인들은 터키어를 배울 때 그리스어를 완전히 포기했지만, 카파도키아 서부 지역에서는 여전히 그리스어가 모국어를 유지하고 있다. 존 로버트 시틀링턴 스테레트는 1884년 카파도시아를 여행하며 "멜레고비는 그리스어를 사용하는 그리스인들이 거의 독점적으로 거주하는 크고 번창하는 마을이다. 그리스인들은 카파도키아 서부를 통해서도 수없이 많고, 일반적으로 아시아의 다른 지역의 그리스인들이 터키어만을 구사하듯이 주목할 만한 사실인 대단한 집념으로 그들의 언어에 매달린다. 그리스어를 사용하는 도시들의 예로는 니에데, 겔베레, 멜레고비(μεοοπαοααα), 소안lı 데레시의 오르타케예 등이 있다."[93] 20세기 초 카파도키아어를 연구하는 학자들과 언어학자들은 많은 카파도키아어 마을이 터키어를 위해 그들의 모국어인 그리스어를 대체하기 시작했다고 관찰을 했다. 19세기 영국의 학자 존 핑커튼은 과거 아나톨리아의 터키 통치자들이 그리스어에 대한 지식을 잃게 만들었다는 사실을 터키어를 사용하는 그리스인으로부터 통보받았다.[94] 핑커튼은 다음과 같이 보고했다.

..."그들의 마호메단 사부들의 잔인한 박해는 그들의 모국어에 관해서조차 현재의 무지의 퇴화된 원인이 되어 왔다.그들의 터키 사부들이 아시아 소아시아에서 그리스어를 그들끼리도 말하는 것을 엄격히 금지시켰고,그들의 혀를 잘라냈던 시절이 있었기 때문이다. 어떤 이는 죽음으로 벌을 주기도 하고, 어떤 이들은 감히 이 야만적인 명령을 거역하기도 하였다. 그들의 압제자들의 언어가 거의 보편적으로 만연된 지 오래되었고, 아나톨리아의 큰 부분에서는 그리스인에 대한 공적인 숭배마저 현재 터키어로 행해지고 있다는 것은 명백한 사실이다. 다음 작품들은, 터키어로, 그러나 그리스어로 된 모든 작품들은, 내가 지금 말한 것에 대한 더 많은 증거를 제공할 수 있다.(존 핑커튼, 1817년)[94]

카파도키아 그리스인들이 그리스에 도착한 1920년대, 그들이 말하는 카파도키아어 그리스어는 수세기 동안 그리스어를 사용하는 나머지 세계와 단절되어 있었기 때문에 그리스 본토에서 사용되는 데모틱 그리스어로는 거의 이해할 수 없었다. 카파도키아 그리스인들은 폰투스와 터키의 서부 해안 지역에 있는 그리스인들보다 언어학적으로 더 투르크화되었다.[61] 그리스에서 한번은 현대 그리스어를 사용하기 시작했고,[67] 그들의 조상인 그리스어 방언인 카파도키아어(Cappadocian Gristian)가 멸종 직전까지 가게 했다. 카파도키아어 그리스어는 일부 학자들에 의해 여러 해 동안 멸종된 것으로 믿어졌다. 그 언어는 그 후 2005년에 살아있는 것으로 선언되었는데, 그 때 카파도키아계 그리스인들의 후손들이 그리스 중북부 지역에서 여전히 유창하게 언어를 구사하는 것이 발견되었다.[63] 오늘날에도 카르디차, 볼로스, 킬키스, 라리사, 테살로니키, 세키디키, 카발라, 알렉산드리아폴리 등 그리스의 여러 지역에서 주로 고령의 카파도키아 그리스인들이 사용하고 있다.[88] 1923년 인구교류를 피할 수 있도록 이슬람으로 개종한 일부 카파도키아인 그리스인들은 여전히 터키의[citation needed] 전통적인 고국에서 이 언어를 사용하고 있다.

문화

카파도키아 그리스인들은 수 세기 동안 그리스어를 사용하는 다른 나라들로부터 고립되어 왔고, 이것은 그들의 문화, 삶의 방식, 그리고 관습들을 다소 독특하게 만들었다. 그들의 문화는 다른 지역의 지형에 의해 강한 영향을 받아왔다. 18세기 중엽, 해트이 후마윤 이후 그리스인의 감정이 자극되어, 그 지역에 더 많은 학교가 설립되었고 그리스어는 위에서 가르쳤다. 케이세리말라코페아 같은 상업도시에서는 세계적인 중산층의 보호 아래 고등교육과 예술이 번성했다. 카파도시아의 경제는 주로 농업과 광업과 계곡과 평야에 위치한 농촌 중심지들에 기반을 두고 있었다. 카파도키아 그리스인들은 그리스에서 여전히 공연되고 있는 독특한 전통 노래와 춤을 가지고 있다.

초기 카파도키아 문학

그리스에서 전통 의상을 입은 카파도키아 그리스 어린이들.

카파도시아의 "로마인" 그리스어 사용자들 사이에서 자신의 거주지를 언급하면서 "로마인"이라는 뜻의 페르시아 시인 루미(1207–1273)는 카파도키아어로 몇 편의 시를 썼다.[95][96][97][98] 이 구절들은 카파도키아어의 언어에 대한 가장 초기 문학적 증명들 중 하나이다.

니에데(PFF Collection, Nafplion)의 여성 전통 의상.

현대 문학

카파도키아계 그리스계 미국인 이민자 겸 유명 할리우드 감독 엘리아 카잔은 카파도키아에서 박해가 증가하는 환경에서 자란 삼촌에 대한 책 '미국, 미국'을 썼다. 10대 때 아버지가 이스탄불에 걸어 보내서 가족 전부가 모아둔 돈으로 엘리아의 삼촌은 새로운 삶을 정착시키고, 결국 나머지 가족들을 도시로 데려오기로 되어 있었다. 결국 엘리아의 삼촌은 훨씬 더 멀리 미국을 여행했고, 후에 그의 효도를 다하고 그의 가족도 데려왔다. 카잔은 1963년에 아카데미 상을 수상한 영화 '아메리카, 아메리카'로 그의 책을 만들었다.

요리.

카파도키아 그리스인들은 비잔틴 시대 이후 많은 아나톨리아 요리 전통을 이어갔다. 여기에는 비잔틴 시대 '파스톤'에서 불리는 별미인 [99][100][101]파스티르마(pastirma)로 알려진 풍력 안정제 고기의 준비와 함께 유비쿼터스 중심 아나톨리안 시금치 같은 허브 마디마크를 사용하여 스파니코피타의 변종과 같은 요리를 만드는 것이 포함된다.[102][103][104]

저명한 카파도키아계 그리스인

유명한 카파도키아인 그리스인 12명: (위쪽)엘리아 카잔, 바실리오스 스테파니디스, 판텔리스 게오르기아디스, 케이세리의 에브게니오스, 디모스테니스 다니엘리디스, 콘스탄티노스 바지니스(아래줄)요아니스 페스마조글루, 파블로스 카롤리디스, 소포클리스 아브라암 처다베르도글루 테오도토스, 디미트리오스 마브로프라이디스, 요아케임 발라바니스, 요르요스 게오르기아디스.

비디오

카파도키아계 그리스계 미국인 이민자 겸 유명 할리우드 감독 엘리아 카잔은 카파도키아에서 자랐다가 10대 때 도보로 보내져 온 삼촌이 박해를 피해 이스탄불에서 새로운 삶을 정착시키고, 결국 남은 인생을 가져오기 위해 아카데미 상을 수상한 영화 '미국'을 만들었다. 그곳의 가족

참조

  1. ^ Jump up to: a b Hirschon, Renée (2003). Crossing the Aegean: An Appraisal of the 1923 Compulsory Population Exchange Between Greece and Turkey. Berghahn Books. pp. 180–191. ISBN 978-1-57181-562-0. Under the terms of Lausanne Convention, signed on 30 January 1923, an approximate total of over 1.2 million Turkish nationals of Greek Orthodox religion were exchanged for 354,647 Greek nationals of Muslim religion. As part of the final phase of this agreement, 44,432 Greek Orthodox Cappadocian refugees were expelled from Turkey and came to Greece as exchanged persons. Since they had not fled under conditions of military conflict, the experience for them was different from that of the earlier waves of refugees who arrived in Greece in 1922. In this chapter, I describe two Cappadocian settlements: New Karvali in eastern Macedonia, northern Greece, and New Prokopi in central Greece, on the island of Evia. In choosing to study these particular settlements two factors proved decisive: their name and their culture significance. Both settlements were named after places left behind in Cappadocia, with the addition of the word ‘New’. […]Aside from the religious dimension, the other main factor that helped the Cappadocian refugees transform their settlements from ‘space’ into a meaningful ‘place’ was that many of them were settled as communities and were not broken up and dispersed. This allowed the transplanted people to name their settlements in Greece after their villages in Cappadocia. […] In the case of the Cappadocians, the notion of keeping a discrete refugee community together as one unit in the settlement process played a significant role in the refugees’ process of adaptation. By settling near relatives and their fellow villagers from Cappadocia, these refugees were encouraged to re-create their neighborhoods.
  2. ^ 블랜차드, 라울. "그리스와 터키의 인구 교류" 지리 검토, 15.3 (1925): 449–56.
  3. ^ Özkan, Akdoğan (2009). Kardeş bayramlar ve özel günler. İnkılâp. ISBN 978-975-10-2928-7. Evlerin bolluk ve bereketi şu veya bu sebeple kaçmışsa, özellikle Rumların yoğun olarak yaşadığı Orta ve Kuzey Anadolu'da bunun sebebinin karakoncolos isimli iblis olduğu düşünülürmüş. Kapadokyalı Rumlar yeni yılın başında sırf ...
  4. ^ Balta, Evangelia (2003). Ottoman studies and archives in Greece. The Isis Press. p. 48. ISBN 978-975-428-223-8. 'The so called "Asia Minor Folklore Studies" initially focused on Ottoman Cappadocia and its ethnic Greek inhabitants.
  5. ^ Jump up to: a b Baum, Wilhelm (2006). The Christian minorities in Turkey. Kitab. p. 162. ISBN 978-3-902005-62-5. On October 11, 1922, Turkey concluded an armistice with the allied forces, but not with the Greeks. The Greeks in the other settlement areas of Asia Minor were also expelled at that time, like e.g. the Kappadocian Greeks in the Goreme area and the other Greeks in Pontus, in the Trabzon area and on the west coast.
  6. ^ Jump up to: a b Bichakjian, Bernard H. (2002). Language in a Darwinian perspective. Peter Lang. p. 206. ISBN 978-0-8204-5458-0. Cappadocia is an ancient district in east central Anatolia, west of the Euphrates River, where there had been a Greek presence from the Hellenistic period to the beginning of this century, when the minority group was submitted to a “population exchange”. As the Cappadocians returned to Greece, they became absorbed by the local population and their dialect died out.
  7. ^ Jump up to: a b c d Swain, Simon; Adams, J. Maxwell; Janse, Mark (2002). Bilingualism in Ancient Society: Language Contact and the Written Word. Oxford [Oxfordshire]: Oxford University Press. pp. 246–266. ISBN 0-19-924506-1.
  8. ^ Jump up to: a b 케말 카팟(1985), 오스만 인구, 1830–1914, 인구 통계사회 특성, 위스콘신 대학교 출판부, 페이지 160-161, 188–189
  9. ^ Bevan, Edwyn Robert (1966). The house of Seleucus, Volume 1. Barnes & Noble. p. 76. OCLC 313659202. The eastern and northern part of the country beyond the Taurus was known to the Persians as Katpatuka, a name which the Greeks transformed into Cappadocia (Kappadokia).
  10. ^ Avi-Yonah, Michael (1978). Hellenism and the East: contacts and interrelations from Alexander to the Roman conquest. University Microfilms International. p. 119. ISBN 978-0-8357-0301-7. The Ptolemies also kept close control of the cities on their domain, but as - apart from Naucratis - their cities were new foundations, the relations between them and their cities belong properly to the next subject to be dealt with, the foundation of new cities… Between these two areas cities were set up along the old Persian 'royal road' from Sardis to Cilicia. This strip of Greek colonies was located between the mountainous regions of Pisidia, Cilicia and Cappadocia, which remained largely unconquered or were ruled by native vassals. Another row of cities lined the seacoast from Rhodes eastwards.
  11. ^ Jump up to: a b Cohen, Getzel M. (1995). The Hellenistic Settlements in Europe, the Islands, and Asia Minor. University of California Press. pp. 43–44. ISBN 978-0-520-08329-5. Turning to the interior regions of Asia Minor, where incidentally his rule was remembered with great nostalgia, we are faced with a lack of unequivocal evidence for any kind of colony founding activity by him. This contrasts sharply with the extensive evidence for Seleucid activity in the region. How many of these Seleucid settlements originated as foundations of Antigonos (or of Lysimachos) is unknown. There is also evidence for colonies of Macedonians in Lydia and Phrygia. … He could, of course, recruit Greek soldiers from Asia Minor and the regions of Greece under his control. But the only Macedonians he could recruit were those already in Asia Minor and Asia. … In short the available evidence makes clear that the Seleucids were very active founding settlements in the interior of Asia Minor. It says nothing about a similar Antigonid effort. There were, of course, other means available to control area, According to Plutarch, when Eumenes was appointed satrap over Cappadocia he distributed cities to his friends, left behind judges (dikastai). And administrators (dioiketai), and appointed garrison commanders.
  12. ^ Dueck, Daniela (2000). Strabo of Amasia: A Greek Man of Letters in Augustan Rome. Psychology Press. pp. 4–5. ISBN 978-0-415-21672-2. The region is topographically divided into two large sections, the coastline and the mountainous inland region. Most of its cities were originally early Greek settlements founded along the seacoast, such as Sinope, Amisus and Pharnacia, whose economy and character were determined by maritime commerce. Amasia was the largest inland urban centre. Most of the other settlements in the interior were villages, generally more affected by earlier Iranian–Anatolian culture…The constant border movements are reflected in the name of the region, called also ‘Cappadocia near the Pontus’ or ‘Cappadocia on the Euxine’.
  13. ^ Jump up to: a b Ashmore, Harry S. (1961). Encyclopædia Britannica: a new survey of universal knowledge, Volume 11. Encyclopædia Britannica. p. 406. Asia Minor … But under the dynasties of his successors a great work of colonization went on as each rival dynasty of Greek or Macedonian kings endeavoured to secure its hold on the country by founding fresh Greek settlements. While new Greek cities were rising in the interior, the older Hellenism of the western coast grew in material splendour under the munificence of Hellenistic kings.
  14. ^ Jump up to: a b Boyce, Mary; Grenet, Frantz (1991). A History of Zoroastrianism: Zoroastrianism Under Macedonian and Roman Rule. BRILL. pp. 267–8. ISBN 978-90-04-09271-6. The coins of Ariaramnes and Ariarathes III, with their mint-names and Greek lettering, have been taken to indicate a scattering of Greeks in the towns of south Cappadocia. […] His son Ariarathes IV (220–c.162), thus half-Macedonian by blood, set the title “king” on his coins, and attached to his name the cognomen Philopator. He also introduced the device of Athena holding Nike, which became the standard reverse type of the Ariarathid coinage. […] His son Ariarathes V (c.162–130), with the cognomen Eusebes, was an ardent philhellene, and no longer wears the tiara on any of his coins. In his youth he studied in Athens, where he became friends with the future Attalus III, the last king of Pergamum. He in his turn married a Seleucid princess, his cousin Nysa, daughter of Antiochus III; and he refounded Mazaka and Tyana as Greek poleis…
  15. ^ Newell, Edward Theodore (1968). Royal Greek portrait coins. Whitman Pub. Co. p. 52. OCLC 697579. ... Ariarathes V was probably the greatest of the Cappadocian kings.
  16. ^ Gera, Dov (1998). Judaea and Mediterranean Politics, 219 to 161 B.C.E. BRILL. p. 259. ISBN 978-90-04-09441-3. Antiochis, a daughter of Antiochus III, and aunt to both Antiochus V and Demetrius. Antiochis had been married to Ariarathes IV, the king of Cappadocia. At the time in question, her son Ariarathes V, the reigning king of Cappadocia asked Lysias’ permission to rebury his mother’s and sister’s bodies in the family plot of the Cappadocian royal house.
  17. ^ Zion, Noam; Spectre, Barbara (2000). A Different Light: The Big Book of Hanukkah. Devora Publishing. p. 57. ISBN 978-1-930143-37-1. Antiochus III, the Greek Seleucid Dynasty of Greater Syria captures Judea. 172 or 171–163
  18. ^ Glubb, John Bagot (1967). Syria, Lebanon, Jordan. Thames & Hudson. p. 34. OCLC 585939. Although the Ptolemies and the Seleucids were perpetual rivals, both dynasties were Greek and ruled by means of Greek officials and Greek soldiers. Both governments made great efforts to attract immigrants from Greece, thereby adding yet another racial element to the population.
  19. ^ Plutarch (1871). Plutarch's Lives, Volume 2. Harper. p. 71. There he had orders to wait for Tigranes, who was then employed in reducing some cities of Phoenicia; and he found means to bring over to the Roman interest many princes who submitted to the Armenian out of pure necessity… He had colonized Mesopotamia with Greeks, whom he draughted in great numbers out of Cilicia and Cappadocia.
  20. ^ Eder, Walter; Renger, Johannes; Henkelman, Wouter; Chenault, Robert (2007). Brill's chronologies of the ancient world New Pauly names, dates and dynasties. Brill. p. 111. ISBN 978-90-04-15320-2. Of greater historical importance are the Archelai, the descendants of an officer of Greek origin (Archelaus). […] The grandson, Archelaus, was the first to have some success in Cappadocia
  21. ^ Plutarch (2007). Plutarch's Lives, Volume 2 (of 4). Echo Library. p. 312. ISBN 978-1-4068-2330-1. This Archelaus was a native of Cappadocia, and probably of Greek stock.
  22. ^ Jump up to: a b Boyce, Mary; Grenet, Frantz (1991). A History of Zoroastrianism: Zoroastrianism Under Macedonian and Roman Rule. BRILL. p. 269. ISBN 978-90-04-09271-6. …36 B.C., when Mark Antony put Archelaus, a great-grandson of one of Mithradates’ generals, on the throne – perhaps Cappadocia’s first king of wholly non-Iranian blood. He appears to have been an able and energetic ruler, who enjoyed a long reign before being deposed in 17 A.C., when senile, by Tiberius, who annexed Cappadocia for Rome.
  23. ^ Jump up to: a b Haughton, Brian (2009). Hidden History: Lost Civilizations, Secret Knowledge, and Ancient Mysteries. ReadHowYouWant. p. 448. ISBN 978-1-4429-5332-1. Apollonius was born around AD2 in Tyana (modern day Bor in southern Turkey), in the Roman province of Cappadocia. He was born into a wealthy and respected Cappadocian Greek family, and received the best education, studying grammar and rhetoric in Tarsus, learning medicine at the temple of Aesculapius at Aegae, and philosophy at the school of Pythagoras.
  24. ^ Jump up to: a b Toledo-Pereyra, Luis H. (2006). Origins of the knife: early encounters with the history of surgery. Landes Bioscience. p. 100. ISBN 978-1-57059-694-0. Aretaeus the Cappadocian (81-138 AD) was the fourth surgeon of distinction considered during the times between Celsus and Galen. He was a Greek, born in Cappadocia, a Roman province in Asia Minor.
  25. ^ Jump up to: a b Talbott, John Harold (1970). A biographical history of medicine: excerpts and essays on the men and their work. Grune & Stratton. p. 15. ISBN 978-0-8089-0657-5. Aretaeus, a Greek, was born in Cappadocia, a Roman province in Asia Minor, several centuries after Hippocrates.
  26. ^ Jump up to: a b Poretsky, Leonid (2002). Principles of Diabetes Mellitus. Springer. p. 20. ISBN 978-1-4020-7114-0. Aretaeus of Cappadocia, a Greek physician who practiced in Rome and Alexandria in the second century AD, was the first to distinguish between what we now call diabetes mellitus and diabetes insipidus.
  27. ^ Cantani, Arnaldo (2008). Pediatric Allergy, Asthma And Immunology. Springer. p. 724. ISBN 978-3-540-20768-9. Aretaeus of Cappadocia, a well-known Greek physician (second century AD), is credited with providing the first detailed description of an asthma attack, and to Celsus it was a disease with wheezing and noisy, violent breathing.
  28. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h Horrocks, Geoffrey C. (2010). Greek: A History of the Language and Its Speakers. John Wiley & Sons. p. 403. ISBN 978-1-4051-3415-6. None the less, at the beginning of the 20th century, Greek still had a strong presence in Silli north-west of Konya (ancient Ikonion), in Pharasa and other villages in the region drained by the Yenice river (some 100 km (62 mi) south of Kayeri, ancient Caesarea), and in Cappadocia proper, at Arabison (Arapsu/Gulsehir) north-west of Nevsehir (ancient Nyssa), and in the large region south of Nevsehir as far down as Nigde and Bor (close to ancient Tyana). This whole area, as the home of St Basil the Great (329–79), his brother St Gregory of Nyssa (335–94) and his friend St Gregory of Nazianzos (330–89), was of great importance in the early history of Christianity, but is perhaps most famous today for the extraordinary landscape of eroded volcanic tufa in the valleys of Goreme, Ihlara and Soganh, and for the churches and houses carved into the 'fairy chimneys' to serve the Christian population in the middle ages. Many of the rock cut churches, which range in date from the 6th to the 13th centuries, contain magnificent frescos. Away from the valleys, some of the villages have vast underground complexes containing houses, cellars, stables, refectories, cemeteries and churches, affording protection from marauding Arabs in the days when the Byzantine empire extended to the Euphrates, and serving later as places of refuge from hostile Turkish raiders. The most famous of these are at Kaymakli and Derinkuyu, formerly the Greek villages of Anaku (Inegi) and Malakopi (Melagob), where the chambers extended down over several levels of depths of up to 85 metres.
  29. ^ Jump up to: a b Robert C. Ostergren; Mathias Le Bossé (2011). The Europeans: A Geography of People, Culture, and Environment. Guilford Press. p. 184. ISBN 978-1-59385-384-6. The spread of Christianity. During a visit from St. Paul in the first century CE, the inhabitants of Cappadocia in central Anatolia were so thoroughly converted that Cappadocia became the great stronghold of Christian monasticism.. The monasteries and churches, dug deeply into the easily worked volcanic tufa cliffs, continued to fulfill their functions until the exchange of populations between Greece and Turkey in 1923. Here we have the Girl’s Monastery, which accommodated some 300 nuns and is called by the Turks the “Virgins Castle.”
  30. ^ Bury, John Bagnell (1967). The Cambridge medieval history, Volume 9, Part 2. University Press. p. 213. OCLC 25352555. The three great Cappadocian Fathers, called by the Greeks 'the three hierarchs ', belong to the Alexandrian school of thought. They are Basil the Great, Bishop of Caesarea in Cappadocia (c. 330-79); Gregory of Nazianzus, a writer of great sensibility with a turn for poetry, the great ‘Theologian’ (as he is called by later writers), for a short time Patriarch of Constantinople (c. 379-c. 390); and Gregory of Nyssa (died c. 394), brother of Basil the Great and Bishop of the small town of Nyssa, a profound thinker and versatile writer.
  31. ^ Jump up to: a b Marvin Perry; Myrna Chase; James Jacob; Margaret Jacob; Theodore H. Von Laue (2012). Western Civilization: Ideas, Politics, and Society. Cengage Learning. p. 184. ISBN 978-1-111-83168-4. Saint Basil (c. 329 - 379), a Greek who was bishop of Caesarea in Cappadocia (eastern Asia Minor), established the rules that became the standard for the monasteries in the East.
  32. ^ Jump up to: a b Company, Houghton Mifflin (2003). The Houghton Mifflin Dictionary of Biography. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. p. 643. ISBN 978-0-618-25210-7. Gregory of Nazian or Nazianzen, St c.330-c.389 AD * Greek prelate and theologian Born of Greek parents in Cappadocia, he was educated in Caesarea, Alexandria and Athens.
  33. ^ Prokhorov, Aleksandr Mikhaĭlovich (1982). Great Soviet encyclopedia, Volume 7. Macmillan. p. 412. OCLC 417318059. One of the most prominent Greek patristic figures. Gregory of Nyssa was the brother of Basil the Great and a friend of Gregory of Nazianzus, and with them he formed the so-called Cappadocian circle of church figures and thinkers.
  34. ^ Clendenin Daniel B. (2003). Eastern Orthodox Christianity: A Western Perspective. Baker Academic. p. 95. ISBN 978-0-8010-2652-2. Only that which is false and sinful must be rejected. Thus the Cappadocian Greek fathers of the fourth century admired Origen; Maximus the Confessor was inspired by Evagrios in his spirituality; Nicodemos of Athos (eighteenth ...
  35. ^ Woodill, Joseph (2002). The Fellowship of Life: Virtue Ethics and Orthodox Christianity. Georgetown University Press. p. 19. ISBN 978-0-87840-368-4. THE CAPPADOCIANS It was not before the middle of the fourth century "that the province of Cappadocia produced three great theologians, Basil of Caesarea, his friend Gregory Nazianzus and his brother Gregory of Nyssa… It is difficult to find a passage in the Cappadocians that does not make reference to the life of virtue in classical terms and language. This is because the Cappadocian Fathers “stood squarely in the tradition of Greek culture.”…The Cappadocian Fathers both revered the Greek cultural pursuit of virtue found for example in Homer and Hesiod and, yet, despised the myths presented in the same works.
  36. ^ Jump up to: a b Stark, Freya (2012). Rome on the Euphrates: The Story of a Frontier. Tauris Parke Paperbacks. p. 390. ISBN 978-1-84885-314-0. Byzantium reverted to Greek (Maurice, born in Cappadocia, was its first Greek emperor); and trade and diplomacy were honored from the very founding of the Imperial city as never in Rome before.
  37. ^ Jump up to: a b Corradini, Richard (2006). Texts and identities in the early Middle Ages. Verl. der Österr. Akad. der Wiss. p. 57. ISBN 978-3-7001-3747-4. Emperor Maurice who is said to be the first emperor "from the race of the Greeks," ex Graecorum genere.
  38. ^ Kinross, Baron Patrick Balfour (1970). Within the Taurus: a journey in Asiatic Turkey. J. Murray. p. 168. ISBN 978-0-7195-2038-9. Its inhabitants were Cappadocian Greeks, who may have found a refuge here, perhaps from Roman, from Iconoclast, or later from Turkish and Mongol threats. Urgup itself was the Byzantine Prokopion; the Emperor Nicephoros Phocas is said to have passed this way, after his Cilician campaign; and the neighborhood was populous enough to support, at different times, a number of bishoprics.
  39. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e Darke, Diana (2011). Eastern Turkey. Bradt Travel Guides. pp. 139–140. ISBN 978-1-84162-339-9. The area became an important frontier province during the 7th century when Arab raids on the Byzantine Empire began. By now the soft tufa had been tunneled and chambered to provide underground cities where a settled if cautious life could continue during difficult times. When the Byzantines re-established secure control between the 7th and 11th centuries, the troglodyte population surfaced, now carving their churches into rock faces and cliffs in the Goreme and Sogamli areas, giving Cappadocia its fame today. […] At any rate here they flourished, their churches remarkable for being cut into the rock, but interesting especially for their paintings, relatively well preserved, rich in coloring, and with an emotional intensity lacking in the formalism of Constantinople; this is one of the few places where paintings from the pre-iconoclastic period have survived. Icons continued to be painted after the Seljuk conquest of the area in the 11th century, and the Ottoman conquest did not interfere with the Christian practices in Cappadocia, where the countryside remained largely Greek, with some Armenians. But decline set in and Goreme, Ihlara and Soganli lost their early importance. The Greeks finally ending their long history here with the mass exchange of populations between Turkey and Greece in 1923.
  40. ^ Jump up to: a b c Dawkins, R.M. (1916). Modern Greek in Asia Minor. A study of dialect of Silly, Cappadocia and Pharasa. Cambridge University Press. p. 16. Retrieved 25 October 2014. their use as places of refuge in time of danger is indicated by their name καταφύγια, and when the news came of the recent massacres at Adana [in 1909], a great part of the population at Axo took refuge in these underground chambers, and for some nights did not venture to sleep above ground.
  41. ^ Jump up to: a b c Ousterhout, Robert G. (2005). A Byzantine Settlement in Cappadocia. Dumbarton Oaks. p. 1. ISBN 978-0-88402-310-4. The Mysteries of Cappadocia – During the Middle Ages, when Cappadocia was an important province of the Byzantine Empire, It became a vibrant area of habitation, with hundreds of settlements, churches, and monasteries carved into the rocky landscape. More than seven hundred churches alone have been counted in the region, many of them preserving impressive ensembles of fresco decoration. Bringing together the best of the Tertiary and the Byzantine periods, the combination of scenic geological wonder and arcane art history has made Cappadocia a tourist destination of ever increasing popularity.
  42. ^ Jump up to: a b Rodley, Lyn (2010). Cave Monasteries of Byzantine Cappadocia. Cambridge University Press. p. 1. ISBN 978-0-521-15477-2. The tenth-century historian Leo the Deacon records a journey to Cappadocia made by Nikephoros Phokas shortly before he became emperor. Perhaps to recapture the attention of readers beginning to tire of troop movements he also offers a scrap of information about a curiosity of the region to which the emperor was heading: its inhabitants were once called troglodytes, because ‘they went underground in holes, clefts and labyrinths, as it were in dens and burrows’. This brief note was probably not based on first-hand knowledge but it might have been prompted by an awareness of the vast number of rock-cut cavities in an area to the west and southwest of Kaisareia (Kayseri of modern Turkey). Had Leo been more inclined to garrulous digression (or perhaps just better informed), he might have supplied more details of the troglodyte region and the task of bringing scholarly order to the hundreds of rock-cut monuments and other cavities in the area might have been much similar. … At this time the region was still inhabited by a mixed population of Turkish-speaking Moslems and Greek-speaking Christians. The latter group left for Greece in the early 1920s, during an exchange of population of minorities that was part of the radical social re-ordering initiated by Kemal Ataturk; they were replaced by Turks from Greece, mostly from Thrace. In the two decades before this upheaval, however, members of the local Greek population acted as guides to Guillaume de Jerphanion, who made several visits to the volcanic valleys and wrote his meticulous descriptions of many painted Byzantine rock-cut churches.
  43. ^ Bainbridge, James (2009). Turkey. Lonely Planet. p. 527. ISBN 978-1-74104-927-5. Several mummies are exhibited too, including the 11th-century mummy of a blonde nun discovered in the 1960s in the Ihlara Valley.
  44. ^ Önder, Mehmet (1983). The museums of Turkey and examples of the masterpieces in the museums. Türkiye İş Bankasi. p. 162. OCLC 19230376. In this museum there is also a mummy which is believed to date from Byzantine times.
  45. ^ Shwartz, Susan (2001). Shards of Empire. E-reads/E-rights. p. 380. ISBN 978-0-7592-1298-5. He also mentions the graves in the underground cities. He also mentions the discovery of a mummified body of a young girl in Ihlara Valley (Peristrema), one of the most remote of the Cappadocian monastic communities and cut by the Melendiz River to the depth of 150 meters, which is where I placed Father Meletios and his friends.
  46. ^ Jump up to: a b Hovannisian, Richard G. (2004). The Armenian People From Ancient to Modern Times, Volume I: The Dynastic Periods: From Antiquity to the Fourteenth Century. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 243. ISBN 978-1-4039-6421-2. From the late tenth century on the Byzantine Empire had followed a policy of removing prominent nakharars from their native lands, absorbing those lands in the structure of the empire, and giving the nakharars in exchange lands and titles elsewhere. The decision of many lords to leave was frequently the result of coercion, though throughout the tenth to eleventh centuries there were also pro-Byzantine factions within the Armenian kingdoms, supporting Byzantium’s aims. Already in 968 the southwestern district of Taron was annexed. In 1000, a large area embracing Tayk, Karin, and Manzikert (to the north of Lake Van) was annexed to the Byzantine Empire. In 1021 King Senekerim Artsruni of Vaspurakan ceded his kingdom to the empire and moved to Cappadocia. He was followed in 1045 by King Gagik II of Ani and King Gagik-Abas of Kars (1064). The Byzantine policy of removing important lords from their Armenian lands and settling them elsewhere (principally on imperial territory, in Cappadocia and northern Mesopotamia) proved shortsighted in two respects. First, it left eastern Asia Minor devoid of its native defenders. Second, it exacerbated Armeno-Greek ethnic tensions by the introduction of thousands of Armenian newcomers into Cappadocia. The empire compounded its error by disbanding a 50,000-man local Armenian army, ostensibly to save money. As a result, the land was left defenseless as well as leaderless.
  47. ^ Jump up to: a b c Zlatar, Zdenko (2007). The Poetics of Slavdom: The Mythopoeic Foundations of Yugoslavia, Volume 2. Peter Lang. p. 540. ISBN 978-0-8204-8135-7. It was after the defeat of the Byzantine Emperor Romanos IV Diogenes (reigned 1068-1071) and his capture by the Seljuk sultan, Alp Aslan (reigned 1063-1072) at Manzikert in Armenia that the real Michael VII Dukas arose. The defeat at Manzikert led to the loss of most of Anatolia, from which the Byzantine Empire never truly recovered, and it inaugurated the process of islamization of the Greek population of Asia Minor.
  48. ^ Jump up to: a b Richard C. Frucht (2005). Eastern Europe: An Introduction to the People, Lands, and Culture. ABC-CLIO. p. 886. ISBN 978-1-57607-800-6. The Byzantine Empire suffers a major defeat at the Battle of Manzikert in Eastern Anatolia, opening the interior of Asia Minor to invasion by Sekjuk Turks. This strategic turn began the steady multicentury transformation of Asia Minor from an entirely Christian and Greek-populated centre to a predominantly Muslim and Turkish region
  49. ^ Jump up to: a b c Suzek, Senem (2008). The decoration of cave churches in Cappadocia under Selçuk rule. Thesis (M.A.)--University of Notre Dame. pp. 9–11. OCLC 747992800. These events in themselves alienated the provinces, to such an extent that it has been claimed that the Armenian and Syrian Monophysite communities welcomed Turkish rule which was seen as relief from the oppression of Orthodox Christianity. Military losses in the tenth and eleventh centuries severely disrupted the population of Asia Minor. Two forced migrations of Armenians into Cappadocia have been documented. The first occurred in the tenth century following the Byzantine conquests of Melitene (934), Tarsus (965), and Antioch (969). The second followed the Battle of Malazgirt (Manzikert) in 1071, when many Armenians moved west. As documented by the chronicler Matthew of Edessa, after severe persecutions of the Armenian and Syrian Monophysite non-Calcedonian communities, the Armenian royal families, which included Adom and Abucahl of Vaspuracan and Gagik of Ani, used the opportunity provided by the Selçuk conquest to seek vengeance upon the local Greek Orthodox population. This included the pillage of wealthy estates and the torture and assassination of the Orthodox metropolitan of Kayseri. Kakig was eventually killed by the local Greek landowners.
  50. ^ Jump up to: a b Herrin, Judith; Saint-Guillain, Guillaume (2011). Identities and Allegiances in the Eastern Mediterranean After 1204. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. p. 181. ISBN 978-1-4094-1098-0. The geographical distribution of the Greek population in Muslim Asia Minor in the first half of the thirteenth century is not clear. It is not impossible that the Greeks might have constituted and ethnic majority in some large urban centres throughout the Seljuk sultanate of Rum…Probably by the beginning of the thirteenth century most of northern Galatia, Phrygia, southern Paphlagonia, and some inland areas adjacent to the Byzantine Pontos, had been cleared of Greeks. Under the pressure of the Turkmen nomads they had emigrated to Western Anatolia, the Balkans, the Pontos, as well as to the central Anatolian plateau and coastal regions of Lycia and Pamphylia in all likelihood. The Greeks were rather numerous in city centers and rural areas in ancient Lycaonia, Cappadocia and Pamphylia. In north-eastern Anatolia the major cities of Sivas, Erzincan, Erzerum were mostly populated by Armenians and Greeks.
  51. ^ Barve, Shashikant V. (1995). Introduction to classical Arabic: a contribution to Islamic and oriental studies. S.V. Barve. pp. 1–89. OCLC 33161571. The Seljuk state of Anatolia was thus born under the great-grandson of Saljooq and it was duly recognized as an independent sultanate by the ‘Abbasid caliph. This facilitated massive Turkish migration and settlement in Anatolia and the process of its islamisation and turkification began in full swing. The Greek Christian population began to diminish owing to mass conversions to Islam or slaughter or exile to Greek territories in Europe.
  52. ^ Jump up to: a b Lapidus, Ira Marvin (2002). A History of Islamic Societies. Cambridge University Press. pp. 250–252. ISBN 978-0-521-77933-3. The absorption of the former Byzantine empire by Turkish-Muslim conquerors led to the eventual conversion of Anatolia and thus added new territories to the domain of Islam. Before the Turkish migrations, the vast majority of the Greek, Armenian, Georgian, and Syrian populations of Anatolia had been Christian. By the fifteenth century more than 90 percent of the population was Muslim. Some of this change was due to the immigration of a large Muslim population, but in great part it was caused by the conversion of Christians to Islam. These conversions were basically due to the breakdown of Anatolian Christianity through the weakening of the Byzantine state and the Greek Orthodox Church, and the collapse of Anatolian society in the face of Turkish migrations. In the late thirteenth and fourteenth centuries the Turks excluded bishops and metropolitans from their sees. Church revenues and properties were confiscated. Hospitals, schools, orphanages, and monasteries were destroyed or abandoned, and the Anatolian Christian population was left without leadership and social services. The remaining Christian clerics had to turn to Turkish authorities to handle internal disputes on terms that only further weakened Christian institutions. …Byzantine princes, lords, and administrators were tempted to convert to Islam in order to join the Ottoman aristocracy. By the end of the fifteenth century Anatolia was largely Muslim. The Ottoman conquests in the Balkans also established Muslim hegemony over large Christian populations, but did not lead, as in Anatolia, to the substantial assimilation of the regional population to Islam.
  53. ^ Pentzopoulos, Dimitri (2002). The Balkan exchange of minorities and its impact on Greece. C. Hurst & Co. Publishers. pp. 29–30. ISBN 978-1-85065-702-6.
  54. ^ Çiğdem Balım-Harding; Meral Güçlü (1999). Turkey. Clio Press. p. xxvi. ISBN 978-1-85109-295-6. During these centuries, other peoples of Anatolia (Greeks, Kurds, Armenians and others) lived with the Turks and shared the land; many adopted the Turkish language, converted to Islam, and came to be known as Turks. The Mongol invasion changed the demography of the Middle East and even central Asia. Turkic tribesmen migrated in large numbers into the Middle East, turkicizing Anatolia, northern Iran and central Eurasia.
  55. ^ Jump up to: a b Thierry, Nicole; Thierry, Jean Michel (1963). Nouvelles églises rupestres de Cappadoce. C. Klincksieck. p. viii. OCLC 22265623. This is the latest of the painted churches, for an inscription states that the donor of the frescoes was Thamar, wife of Basil Giagupes, a Greek feudatory serving the Seljuk Sultan of Konia, Masut II. He was probably the lord of the surrounding district which must have still been strongly Greek.
  56. ^ Peacock, A.C.S.; De Nicola, Bruno (2016). Islam and Christianity in Medieval Anatolia. [Routledge]: Routledge. pp. 216–221, 229, 231. ISBN 9781317112693. The Greek communities of Cappadocia under the Seljuqs had a profound spiritual attachment to Byzantium, which formed a significant part of their communal identity. … On the other hand, the story gives tangible information on the situation of indigenous Greek painters in Anatolia, even if not taken literally. Above all, the author states that the two Greek artists in question are considered among the best in the land of Rūm, while stressing that they were excellent in the field of human figures, which probably distinguished them from their Muslim counterparts. Second, the story of the painter Kaloioannes or, Kālūyāni Naqqāsh, his journey to Constantinople, and his one-year stay a monastery in the Byzantine capital during the lifetime of Mawlana should correspond to the second half of the thirteenth century. This suggests that Greek painters of Rūm were well acquainted with Byzantine art through direct contact with Constantinople from 1261 onwards.
  57. ^ Jump up to: a b Panzac, Daniel (1995). Histoire économique et sociale de l'Empire ottoman et de la Turquie (1326–1960): actes du sixième congrès international tenu à Aix-en-Provence du 1er au 4 juillet 1992. Peeters Publishers. pp. 345–6. ISBN 978-90-6831-799-2. They were known as Karaman Greeks (Karamanlilar or Karamaniyari) and had latterly been turcificated during in culture and language during the reign of Murad III. A good number of them had been converted to Islam.
  58. ^ Jump up to: a b Hanioğlu, M. Şükrü (2010). A Brief History of the Late Ottoman Empire. Princeton University Press. p. 36. ISBN 978-0-691-14617-1. The Ottoman state never sought to impose Turkish on subject peoples…Some ethno-religious groups, when outnumbered by Turks, did accept Turkish vernacular through a gradual process of acculturation. While the Greeks of the Peloponnese, Thessaly, Epirus, Macedonia, Thrace, and west Anatolian littoral continued to speak and write in Greek, The Greeks of Cappadocia (Karaman) spoke Turkish and wrote Turkish in Greek script. Similarly, a large majority of Armenians in the empire adopted Turkish as their vernacular and wrote Turkish in Armenian characters, all efforts to the contrary by the Mkhitarist order notwithstanding. The first novels published in the Ottoman Empire in the mid-nineteenth century were by Armenians and Cappadocian Greeks; they wrote them in Turkish, using the Armenian and Greek alphabets.
  59. ^ Day Otis Kellogg; Thomas Spencer Baynes; William Robertson Smith (1903). The Encyclopædia Britannica: A-ZYM. Werner. p. 82. OCLC 4704101. By the Greeks it is still called by its ancient name of Laranda. which was changed by the Turks for its present designation in honour of Karaman, the founder of the Karamanian kingdom.
  60. ^ Jump up to: a b Augustinos, Gerasimos (1992). The Greeks of Asia Minor: confession, community, and ethnicity in the nineteenth century. Kent State University Press. p. 18. ISBN 978-0-87338-459-9. Most of all, the imperial capital drew Greeks from communities deep in the interior. Greek and Turkish-speaking men from the regions of Cappadocia and Karaman settled in the capital, forming enclaves of their native communities.
  61. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Daly, Michael; Bodleian Library (1988). The Turkish legacy: an exhibition of books and manuscripts to mark the fiftieth anniversary of the death of the founder of the Turkish Republic, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk. Bodleian Library. p. 40. ISBN 978-1-85124-016-6. …a large number of works were printed in Turkish using the Greek and Armenian alphabets. These were intended for those ethnic Greeks and Armenians who, while retaining their religious allegiance to their respective churches, had lost all knowledge of their own languages and had been assimilated linguistically by their Muslim Turkish neighbours. Turcophone Greeks were known as Karamanlides, after the province of Karaman where many of them lived, although there were also large communities in Istanbul and in the Black Sea region, and printed or manuscript works in Turkish using the Greek alphabet are known as Karamanlidika.
  62. ^ Guppy, Henry; John Rylands Library (1956). Bulletin of the John Rylands Library, Volume 38. Manchester University Press. p. 27. Third, the rapid conversion of the country to Islam and Turkish speech — except in the case of some remote villages of Cappadocia which remained Greek-speaking and Christian – can be explained if the former inhabitants had to return as suppliants to the new foundations
  63. ^ Jump up to: a b Horrocks, Geoffrey C. (2010). Greek: A History of the Language and Its Speakers. John Wiley & Sons. p. 398. ISBN 978-1-4051-3415-6. Cappadocia fell immediately under Seljuk control and, with the growth of bilingualism and conversion to Islam, its dialects began to show signs of Turkish influence and later of convergence with the dominant language. After the Greek military disaster of 1922–3 and the deportation of the Christian population to settlements in central and northern Greece, the central and eastern Anatolian varieties fell into what till recently was believed to be terminal decline. In 2005, however, it was discovered that there were descendants of the Cappadocian refugees in central and northern Greece who still spoke their traditional language fluently. The position of Cappadocia remains precarious, but it is certainly not yet extinct.
  64. ^ Rodley, Lyn (2010). Cave Monasteries of Byzantine Cappadocia. Cambridge University Press. p. 5. ISBN 978-0-521-15477-2. ..medieval place names in the region that can be established are known only from scant references: one Elpidios, Memorophylax of Prokopios, who attended the Council of Chalcedon (451), may have come from Hagios Prokopios (now Urgup, but still called ‘Prokopion’ by the local Greek population in the early years of this century);
  65. ^ Jump up to: a b Nagel Publishers (1968). Turkey. Nagel. p. 615. OCLC 3060049. The Karaman region was for a long time inhabited by Turkish-speaking Orthodox Greeks who wrote Turkish in the Greek script. These Greeks are called Karamanians.
  66. ^ Jump up to: a b Paul J J Sinclair; Gullög Nordquist; Frands Herschend; Christian Isendahl; Laura Wrang (2010). The Urban mind : cultural and environmental dynamics. Uppsala, Sweden : African and Comparative Archaeology, Department of Archaeology and Ancient History, Uppsala University. p. 425. ISBN 978-91-506-2175-4. The roles of various minorities will be dealt with below. The largest minorities developed their own written traditions, creating Graeco-Turkish, Armeno- Turkish, and Judeo-Turkish literatures. In the 16th century, Jewish poets wrote hymns in Hebrew after the model of Ottoman songs and wrote Turkish in Hebrew script. The first literary works in a modern European sense were based on a spoken variety of Turkish and written with Armenian characters. The Karamanlid literature, produced by orthodox Christians, was written in Greek characters. The Judeo-Spanish (Ladino) group cultivated a Romance variety brought to Istanbul and the Balkans by Jews expelled from Spain in 1492. The first descriptions and grammars of Ottoman were written by minority members and foreigners. Ottoman scholars were less interested in the cultivation of Turkish as such, but paid more attention to the Arabic and Persian components of written Ottoman. As described below, the so-called transcription texts produced by various mediators are of high value for reconstructing the development of Turkish spoken varieties.
  67. ^ Jump up to: a b Gökalp, Ziya (1959). Turkish nationalism and Western civilization: selected essays. Columbia University Press. p. 131. OCLC 407546. In Turkey the Karaman Greeks and many Armenians revived their languages after they had been Turkified.
  68. ^ Jump up to: a b c Klaus Roth; Robert Hayden (2011). Migration In, From, and to Southeastern Europe. LIT Verlag Münster. p. 65. ISBN 978-3-643-10895-1. Journalists describing conversion to Islam usually considered the renegade as someone who, by losing his or her religion, was also stepping out of the Greek national community. The act would be usually described as an “eksomosia” (Metarrythmisis 3/15.6.1892; Omonia 16/29.2.1904), an apostasy from the religious oath. It might also be characterized as an “aponenoimeno diavima” (Omonia 10/23.2.1903), a desperate, out of mind action, an expression usually reserved for people who commit suicide. In this understanding, choosing to adopt the Muslim religion was not just an individual choice concerning spiritual matters, but additionally signified giving away “tin thriskeian kai ton ethnismon”, both religion and “national essence” (Metarrythmisis 3/15.6.1892). People who took such a decision were the people who “tourkeuoun”, who “become Turks”, an expression applied even when referring to people shifting to Islam in Egypt (Metarrythmisis 30/12.5.1891; Alitheia 3/15.11.1895). The use of this expression is an example of what has been called “Ottoman thinking”, according to which Muslims and Turks are conflated, and was even popular many years after the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire (Hirschon 2001: 171).
  69. ^ Masters, Bruce Alan (2004). Christians And Jews In The Ottoman Arab World: The Roots Of Sectarianism. Cambridge University Press. p. 11. ISBN 978-0-521-00582-1. Throughout most of the Ottoman period, European visitors to the sultans' realms used the label "Turk" indiscriminately to mean any Muslim, regardless of his or her mother tongue. To become Muslim was to "turn Turk.
  70. ^ Rodley, Lyn (2010). Cave Monasteries of Byzantine Cappadocia. Cambridge University Press. p. 160. ISBN 978-0-521-15477-2. Many shifts of population in central Anatolia took place before the removal of the Cappadocian Greeks in the 1920s and it is quite possible that the Archangel Monastery was abandoned, perhaps for centuries, and then restored to parochial, rather than monastic, use.
  71. ^ Petersen, Andrew (2002). Dictionary of Islamic Architecture. Routledge. p. 58. ISBN 978-0-203-20387-3. Cyprus (Turkish: Kibris; Arabic: Qubrus)…However, in many ways the Ottoman conquest had simply replaced one group of rulers with another, leaving the Greek Orthodox population largely intact. This situation was understood by the Ottoman emperor, Selim I, who after the conquest tried to improve the prosperity of the island by populating it with Greek families from the Kayseri region. Ottoman rule ended with the First World War and from 1918 the island was under British rule until it became independent in the 1950s.
  72. ^ Jump up to: a b Goodwin, Godfrey (1971). A history of Ottoman architecture. Johns Hopkins Press. p. 199. ISBN 978-0-8018-1202-6. He came from the district of Karaman and the Greek lands, but he does not, it is true, specifically call himself a Greek, which, in effect, he no longer was from the moment that he admitted that there was no other God but Allah. Yet after the conquest of Cyprus in 1571, when Selim decided to repopulate the island by transferring Greek families from the Karaman beylik, Sinan intervened on behalf of his family and obtained two orders from the Sultan in council exempting them from deportation. It was Selim I who ordered the first devsirme levy in Anatolia in 1512 and sent Yaya- basis to Karamania and this is probably the year in which Sinan came to Istanbul. Since he was born about 1491, or at the latest in 1492, he was old for a devsirme…
  73. ^ Jump up to: a b Rogers, J. M. (2006). Sinan. I.B.Tauris. p. backcover. ISBN 978-1-84511-096-3. (Sinan) He was born in Cappadocia, probably into a Greek Christian family. Drafted into the Janissaries during his adolescence, he rapidly gained promotion and distinction as a military engineer.
  74. ^ Jump up to: a b c Oberheu, Susanne. Wadenpohl, Michael (2010). Cappadocia. BoD. pp. 270–1. ISBN 978-3-8391-5661-2. On May 1st, 1923, the agreement on the exchange of the Turkish and Greek minorities in both countries was published. A shock went through the ranks of the people affected – on both sides. Within a few months they had to pack their belongings and ship them or even sell them. They were to leave their homes, which had also been their great-grandfathers’ homes, they were to give up their holy places and leave the graves of their ancestors to an uncertain fate. In Cappadocia, the villages of Mustafapasa, Urgup, Guzelyurt and Nevsehir were the ones affected most by this rule. Often more than half the population of a village had to leave the country, so that those places were hardly able to survive…The Greeks form Cappadocia were taken to Mersin on the coast in order to be shipped to Greece from there. But they had to leave the remaining part of their belongings behind in the harbor. They were actually promised that everything would be sent after them later, but corrupt officials and numberless thieves looted the crammed storehouses, so that after a few months only a fraction of the goods or even nothing at all arrived at their new home….Today the old houses of the Greek people are the only testimony that reminds us of them in Cappadocia. But these silent witnesses are in danger, too. Only a few families can afford the maintenance of those buildings….CS1 maint: 여러 이름: 작성자 목록(링크)
  75. ^ Jump up to: a b Güzelyurt becomes a touristic hub. AKSARAY – Anatolia News Agency. July 17, 2012. In the town of Güzelyurt in Aksaray Province in the Central Anatolian region of Turkey, 250-year-old arched stone mansions have been transformed into boutique hotels to serve tourists coming to discover the area’s cultural and historical treasures. The town is an important part of the historical Cappadocia region…Much of the previously large Greek population in Güzelyurt vanished with the population exchange of the 1920s. "With the population exchange in 1924, Greeks and Turks exchanged places. Before the population exchange, rich Greeks dealing with trade in Istanbul had historical mansions in Güzelyurt," Özeş said. Some houses in the town date back 250 years and a few 100-year-old historical houses also exist, according to Özeş. "They have extremely thick walls. The height of the arches is nearly four to five meters. Each of the houses is a work of art creating an authentic environment."
  76. ^ Saffron, Inga (2002). Caviar: the strange history and uncertain future of the world's most coveted delicacy. Broadway Books. p. 66. ISBN 978-0-7679-0623-4. Middlemen from Greece, Italy, and the Levant haggled over barrels of the newly popular delicacy. Young, ethnic Greek boys came down from hills of Cappadocia to work in the Istanbul caviar trade.
  77. ^ C[harles] W[illiam] Wilson (1887). The Greeks in Asia. The Asiatic Quarterly Review, Volume III, January–April, pp. 32–56. Swan Sonnenshein & Company. pp. 50–51. OCLC 457113541. The Cappadocian Greeks have a reputation throughout Asia Minor for energy and commercial activity; there are few towns in which a merchant from Kaisariyeh is not to be found ; and the rocky nature of the country drives even the poorer classes to seek their living elsewhere. Perhaps the most interesting trait in the character of these Greeks is their intense love of their native country; the great ambition of every man is to earn sufficient money to enable him to build a house and settle down in his beloved Cappadocia. The young men go off to Constantinople for a few years, and then return to marry and build a house; a couple of years of married life sees the end of their savings, and they have to revisit the capital, sometimes remaining there ten or fifteen years, to earn sufficient to support themselves and their wives for the remainder of their lives. Each village is connected with some particular guild in Constantinople; one supplies bakals or small storekeepers, another sellers of wine and spirits, another dryers of fish, another makers of caviare, another porters, and so forth…The people have no marked political aspirations such as those which prevail amongst the Greeks of the west coast; they dream, it is true, of a new Byzantine Empire, but any sympathies they can spare from an all-absorbing love of money and gain are devoted to the Russian. The south Cappadocian district, in which St. Gregory of Nazianzus once ministered, shows many signs of growing prosperity ; building is going on, and the people are vacating, for houses above ground, the subterranean villages, to which they owe the preservation of their faith and language. These villages are known by Greek as well as by Turkish names ; in some Greek is spoken by Moslem and Christian, in others a Graeco-Turk jargon, and in others Turkish only; and this mixture is found even in the churches, where the descriptive remarks on the holy pictures are often in Turkish written in Greek characters.
  78. ^ Jump up to: a b Hirschon, Renée (1998). Heirs of the Greek Catastrophe: The Social Life of Asia Minor Refugees in Piraeus. Berghahn Books. p. 18. ISBN 978-1-57181-730-3. Before the expulsion, Greek settlements were both numerous and widespread throughout Asia Minor, indeed throughout most of today’s Turkey. The greatest concentration was in the province of Pontus, on the Black Sea, where the Greek presence goes back for millennia. The western coastal regions and north-western area of Asia Minor were also densly settled with numerous Greek communities in coastal and inland cities and in the countryside. Generally, fewer Greek communities existed in central and southern Asia Minor, but the provinces of Kappadokia and Lykaonia had large numbers of Greek settlements and substantial populations in urban centers such as Kaisaria, Nigde, and Ikonion.
  79. ^ Jump up to: a b c Jones, Adam (2010). Genocide: A Comprehensive Introduction. Taylor & Francis. pp. 150–151. ISBN 978-0-415-48618-7. By the beginning of the First World War, a majority of the region’s ethnic Greeks still lived in present-day Turkey, mostly in Thrace (the only remaining Ottoman territory in Europe, abutting the Greek border), and along the Aegean and Black Sea coasts. They would be targeted both prior to and alongside the Armenians of Anatolia and Assyrians of Anatolia and Mesopotamia…The major populations of “Anatolian Greeks” include those along the Aegean coast and in Cappadocia (central Anatolia), but not the Greeks of the Thrace region west of the Bosphorus…A “Christian genocide” framing acknowledges the historic claims of Assyrian and Greek peoples, and the movements now stirring for recognition and restitution among Greek and Assyrian diasporas. It also brings to light the quite staggering cumulative death toll among the various Christian groups targeted…of the 1.5 million Greeks of Asia minor – Ionians, Pontians, and Cappadocians – approximately 750,000 were massacred and 750,000 exiled. Pontian deaths alone totaled 353,000.
  80. ^ Vermeule, C. C. (2001). ART AND ARCHAEOLOGY OF ANTIQUITY, Volumes 2–3. Pindar Press. p. 243. ISBN 978-1-899828-11-1. The Cappadocian Greeks of the twentieth century were known not only for their preservation of the ancient tongue but also for the richness of their folktales, legends of saints, kings, heroes, and common folk that often went back through the Byzantine era to Graeco-Roman times. R. M. Dawkins observed that the children whom he met in the villages of Cappadocia preserved among themselves the last traces and broken fragments of the art, each child telling his own special story to the others.
  81. ^ Schiffer, Reinhold (1999). Oriental Panorama: British Travellers in 19th Century Turkey. Rodopi. p. 269. ISBN 978-90-420-0796-3. …in 1838 Ainsworth spoke of the regained ease, freedom and prosperity of Cappadocian Greek settlements such as Nevsehir and Incesu and arrived as a verdict which is possibly less remote from the truth than that of British castigators: "The Cappadocian Greeks are, generally speaking, pleasing and unreserved in their manners, and their conversation indicated a very high degree of intelligence and civilization, where there are so few books, and so little education, and consequently, little learning."
  82. ^ C[harles] W[illiam] Wilson (1887). The Greeks in Asia. The Asiatic Quarterly Review, Volume III, January–April, pages 50,51. The Cappadocian Greeks have a reputation throughout Asia Minor for energy and commercial activity; there are few towns in which a merchant from Kaisariyeh is not to be found ; and the rocky nature of the country drives even the poorer classes to seek their living elsewhere. Perhaps the most interesting trait in the character of these Greeks is their intense love of their native country; the great ambition of every man is to earn sufficient money to enable him to build a house and settle down in his beloved Cappadocia. The young men go off to Constantinople for a few years, and then return to marry and build a house; a couple of years of married life sees the end of their savings, and they have to revisit the capital, sometimes remaining there ten or fifteen years, to earn sufficient to support themselves and their wives for the remainder of their lives. Each village is connected with some particular guild in Constantinople; one supplies bakals or small storekeepers, another sellers of wine and spirits, another dryers of fish, another makers of caviare, another porters, and so forth…The people have no marked political aspirations such as those which prevail amongst the Greeks of the west coast; they dream, it is true, of a new Byzantine Empire, but any sympathies they can spare from an all-absorbing love of money and gain are devoted to the Russian. The south Cappadocian district, in which St. Gregory of Nazianzus once ministered, shows many signs of growing prosperity ; building is going on, and the people are vacating, for houses above ground, the subterranean villages, to which they owe the preservation of their faith and language. These villages are known by Greek as well as by Turkish names ; in some Greek is spoken by Moslem and Christian, in others a Graeco-Turk jargon, and in others Turkish only; and this mixture is found even in the churches, where the descriptive remarks on the holy pictures are often in Turkish written in Greek characters.
  83. ^ Jump up to: a b Taylor, Frederick (2012). Exorcising Hitler: The Occupation and Denazification of Germany. Bloomsbury Publishing. pp. 59–60. ISBN 978-1-4088-2212-8. The other large Christian minority in the Turkish sphere of rule was that of the Ottoman Greeks, again totaling around 1.5 million, mostly living near to the west coast of Anatolia, where they had been settled since a millennium before the birth of Christ. Numerous Greeks were to be found also in Istanbul (once, as Constantinople, the capital of the Greek Byzantine Empire), on the Black Sea coast and in the eastern province of Cappadocia, where the long-established but isolated Greek population now spoke a kind of Turkish dialect… The resulting war between the Greeks and Turks, the latter led by their great national hero, General Mustafa Kemal (later honored with the name Kemal Atatürk) ended in a definite and tragically bloody Turkish victory. Many thousands of Greeks were massacred or fled
  84. ^ Jump up to: a b Moseley, Christopher (2007). Encyclopedia Of The World's Endangered Languages. Psychology Press. pp. 239–40. ISBN 978-0-7007-1197-0. Cappadocian Greek [100] an outlying dialect of Greek spoken in a few isolated communities in the interior of Cappadocia in central Turkey, notably in Sille (Silli) near Konya, villages near Kayseri, and Faras (Pharasa) and adjacent villages, before the genocide of 1915 and the subsequent population exchanges, after which most survivors settled in Greece.
  85. ^ Jump up to: a b c Midlarsky, Manus I. (2005). The Killing Trap: Genocide in the Twentieth Century. Cambridge University Press. pp. 342–343. ISBN 978-0-521-81545-1. Many, (Greeks) however, were massacred by the Turks, especially at Smyrna (today’s İzmir) as the Greek army withdrew at the end of their headlong retreat from central Anatolia at the end of the Greco-Turkish War. Especially poorly treated were the Pontic Greeks in eastern Anatolia on the Black Sea. In 1920, as the Greek army advanced, many were deported to the Mesopotamian desert as had been the Armenians before them. Nevertheless, approximately 1,200,000 Ottoman Greek refugees arrived in Greece at the end of the war. When one adds to the total the Greeks of Constantinople who, by agreement, were not forced to flee, then the total number comes closer to the 1,500,000 Greeks in Anatolia and Thrace. Here, a strong distinction between intention and action is found. According to the Austrian consul at Amisos, Kwiatkowski, in his November 30, 1916, report to foreign minister Baron Burian: “on 26 November Rafet Bey told me: ‘we must finish off the Greeks as we did with the Armenians…’ on 28 November Rafet Bey told me : ‘today I sent squads to the interior to kill every Greek on sight.’ I fear for the elimination of the entire Greek population and a repeat of what occurred last year, Or according to a January 31, 1917, report by Chancellor Hollweg of Austria: The indications are that the Turks plan to eliminate the Greek element as enemies of the state, as they did earlier with the Armenians. The strategy implemented by the Turks is of displacing people to the interior without taking measures for their survival by exposing them to death, hunger, and illness. The abandoned homes are then looted and burnt or destroyed. Whatever was done to the Armenians is being repeated with the Greeks. Massacres most likely did take place at Amisos and other villages in Pontus. Yet given the large number of surviving Greeks, especially relative to the small number of Armenian survivors, the massacres apparently were restricted to Pontus, Smyrna, and selected other ‘sensitive’ regions.
  86. ^ Magnarella, Paul J. (1998). Anatolia's loom: studies in Turkish culture, society, politics and law. Isis Press. p. 199. ISBN 978-975-428-113-2. …Greece and Turkey agreed to exchange their “Turkish” and Greek populations. As a consequence, most Christian Greeks living in rural Turkey were exported to Greece. However, the descendants of Anatolian Greeks who had converted to Islam remained, and the cult of Christian saints remained with them.
  87. ^ Darke, Diana (2011). Eastern Turkey. Bradt Travel Guides. pp. 164–5. ISBN 978-1-84162-339-9. Less visited than most parts of Cappadocia, Guzelyurt (‘Beautiful Place’ in Turkish)…The next thing to visit is the Byzantine Church of St Gregory, built in AD385, restored in 1835, and then converted into a mosque when the Greeks left in the exchange of populations in the 1920s. Known today as Buyuk Kilise Camii (Big Church Mosque), the whitewash on the walls is being removed to reveal the original frescoes. A little further into the valley look out for the Sivisli Kilise (Anargyros Church) with square pillars and a dome with fine frescoes, then the Koc (Ram) Church and the Cafarlar (Rivulets) Church. Monastery Valley, as it is known, continues for 4.5 km (2.8 mi) with fine scenery and panoramas and yet more rock-cut churches, some with interesting architectural features.
  88. ^ Jump up to: a b Ammon, Ulrich (2012). Morphologies in Contact. Akademie Verlag. p. 180. ISBN 978-3-05-005701-9. Even among men, very few people were fully bilingual, as opposed to speakers of Cappadocian, another Asia Minor dialect of Greek origin, where bilingualism was spread among men and women. Cappadocian was spoken in about 32 Greek-speaking settlements in central Asia Minor before 1923, when the exchange of populations between Greece and Turkey took place. Today, there are few remaining native speakers, in certain parts of Northern Greece (in the areas of Karditsa, Volos, Kilkis, Larisa, Thessaloniki, Chalkidiki, Kavala, and Alexadroupoli), all of them descendants from Cappadocian refugees.
  89. ^ Oberheu, Susanne. Wadenpohl, Michael (2010). Cappadocia. BoD. p. 8. ISBN 978-3-8391-5661-2. Right up until the last century, Greeks settled down in Cappadocia and helped shape many villages with their beautifully decorated houses… Cappadocia is not only a World Natural Heritage, but also a World Cultural Heritage, and an unusual openness to the world can be perceived here to the present day.CS1 maint: 여러 이름: 작성자 목록(링크)
  90. ^ 도킨스, R.M. 1916. 아시아의 현대 그리스어 마이너. 실리, 카파도키아, 파라사의 방언에 관한 연구 케임브리지: 케임브리지 대학 출판부.
  91. ^ Jump up to: a b 도킨스, R.M. 1916. 아시아의 현대 그리스어 마이너. 실리, 카파도키아, 파라사의 방언에 관한 연구 케임브리지: 케임브리지 대학 출판부.
  92. ^ Armenian General Benevolent Union (1988). Ararat, Volume 29. Armenian General Benevolent Union of America. p. 43. OCLC 643827160. Unlike the Karamanlides – Elia Kazan’s people, the Greeks of Kaisaria in the Anatolian interior who, over the centuries became Turkish-speaking – the Kouvoukliotes were always Grecophones who spoke Turkish with a strong Greek accent. As was natural, their dialect included Turkish words like rahat, bahcheh, dondourmas…., and it differed greatly from the Greek spoken in other villages of the province.
  93. ^ Sterrett, John Robert Sitlington ; American School of Classical Studies at Athens (1885). Preliminary report of an archæological journey made in Asia Minor during the summer of 1884. Cupples, Upham, and Co. p. 17. OCLC 10889843. Melegobi is a large and flourishing village, inhabited almost exclusively by Greek-speaking Greeks. The Greeks are numerous all through the western part of Cappadocia, and generally cling to their language with great tenacity, a fact worthy of notice, inasmuch as the Greeks in other parts of Asia Minor speak only Turkish. Instances of Greek-speaking towns are Nigde, Gelvere, Melegobi (Μελοκοπια), and Ortakieui in Soghanli Deressi.CS1 maint: 여러 이름: 작성자 목록(링크)
  94. ^ Jump up to: a b Stephen K. Batalden; Kathleen Cann; John Dean (2004). Sowing the word: the cultural impact of the British and Foreign Bible Society, 1804–2004. Sheffield Phoenix Press. p. 246. ISBN 978-1-905048-08-3. Pinkerton had been assured by a number of “worthy” Greeks that “the cruel persecutions of their Mahomedan masters have been the cause of their present state of ignorance, even in regard to their native tongue”. Pinkerton’s interlocutors claimed that there had been a time “when their Turkish masters strictly prohibited the Greeks in Asia Minor even from speaking the Greek language among themselves". Those who disobeyed "this their barbarous command" had had their tongues cut out or had been punished with death. The cutting out of tongues was a commonly held, popular explanation for the abandonment of Greek in favor of Turkish, although there is no evidence that such a practice had ever occurred. “It is”, Pinkerton wrote, “an indisputable fact, that the language of their oppressors has long since almost universally prevailed, and that in a great part of Anatolia even the public worship of the Greeks is now performed in the Turkish tongue”. He appended a list of publications in karamanlidika, five of which he had been able to purchase. He concluded that, in his “humble opinion,”
  95. ^ Δέδες, Δ. 1993. Ποιήματα του Μαυλανά Ρουμή. Τα Ιστορικά 10.18–19: 3–22.
  96. ^ 마이어, G. 1895. 라바비나마의 그리시첸 절. 비잔티니스체 자이체리프트 4: 401–411.
  97. ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2012-08-05. Retrieved 2014-10-24.CS1 maint: 제목으로 보관된 복사본(링크)
  98. ^ http://www.khamush.com/greek/gr.htm
  99. ^ 앤드류 달비, 사이렌 잔치, 페이지 109, 201
  100. ^ Ash, John (2006). A Byzantine journey (2nd ed.). London: Tauris Parke Paperbacks. ISBN 9781845113070. Having inherited pastirma from the Byzantines, the Turks took it with them when they conquered Hungary and Romania,
  101. ^ Davidson, Alan (2014). The Oxford Companion to Food. Oxford University Press. p. 123. ISBN 9780199677337. Retrieved 21 October 2014. This is certainly true of Byzantine cuisine. Dried meat, a forerunner of the pastirma of modern Turkey, became a delicacy.
  102. ^ Underwood, Irina Petrosian ; David (2006). Armenian food : fact, fiction & folklore (2nd ed.). Bloomington, Ind.: Yerkir Pub. ISBN 9781411698659. In Byzantine times, the city was called Caesarea Mazaca. There and throughout Byzantium, the technique called paston was an accepted salt-curing tradition. Turks reintroduced paston as pastirma.
  103. ^ Smith, Bruce; Kraig, Andrew (2013). The Oxford Encyclopedia of Food and Drink in America. Oxford University Press. ed. ISBN 9780199734962. Retrieved 21 October 2014. When the Ottomans settled in Istanbul they also adopted a number of Byzantine dishes, one of which was a form of cured beef called paston and which the Turks called pastirma…It became and remains a specialty of Kayseri in Cappadocia in west central Turkey.
  104. ^ Anagnostakis, Ilias (2013). Flavours and Delights. Tastes and Pleasures of Ancient and Byzantine Cuisine. Armos. p. 81. paston or tarichon…Cured meats were either eaten raw or cooked in pasto-mageireia with bulgur and greens, mainly cabbage.
  105. ^ Hazel, John (2001). Who's Who in the Roman World. Routledge. p. 19. ISBN 978-0-415-22410-9. Archelaus 1. (Cl BC) was a Greek general from Cappadocia who served MITHRIDATES (3) VI, king of Pontus.
  106. ^ Fried, Johannes (2015). The Middle Ages. Harvard University Press. p. 10. ISBN 9780674055629. One of their own number, Bishop Ulfilas, a Goth who originally came from a Greek-Cappadocian family, translated the Holy Gospel into the Gothic vernacular – an enormous undertaking and a work of true genius.
  107. ^ Berndt, Dr Guido M (2014). Arianism: Roman Heresy and Barbarian Creed. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. p. 57. ISBN 9781409446590. Though ulfila may have spoken some Greek in his own family circle, since they were of Greek origin, he is likely to have been able to draw on formal education in both latin and Greek in creating Gothic as a literary language.
  108. ^ "Gök Medrese". The Gok Medrese (Blue Koran school). The Seljuk building was designed for vizier Fahr ed-Din Ali ben Hussein around 1271 by the Greek architect Kalojan.
  109. ^ Speros Vryonis (1981). Studies on Byzantium, Seljuks, and Ottomans. p. 282. Perhaps the best known of these architects was the Greek from Konya, Kaloyan, who worked on the Ilgin Han in 1267-8 and three years later built the Gök Medrese of Sivas.
  110. ^ ΚΥΡΙΑΚΑΝΤΩΝΑΚΗΣ, ΙΩΑΝΝΗΣ. "Η ελληνική λογιοσύνη της Κωνσταντινούπολης" (PDF). Κέντρο Μικρασιατικών Σπουδών. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2018-07-12. ΒΑΠΟΡΙΔΗΣ, ΑΒΡΑΑΜ Νίγδη (Φερτέκι, Καππαδοκία), 1855–Κωνσταντινούπολη, 1911 Κρατικός αξιωματούχος, μέλος του Ελεγκτικού Συνεδρίου του Αυτοκρ. Υπουργείου Παιδείας: «επιθεωρητής των τυπογραφείων και ελεγκτής των ελληνικών βιβλίων». Συνέγραψε οθωμανική ιστορία: Επίτομος βιογραφική ιστορία των Σουλτάνων της Οθωμανικής αυτοκρατορίας προς χρήσιν των σχολών δύο τομίδια (πρώτη έκδ.: ΚΠ., Βουτυράς: 1885)
  111. ^ Güneş, İhsan (1997). Türk parlamento tarihi: Meşrutiyete geçiş süreci I. ve II. Meşrutiyet, Volume 2. Türkiye Büyük Millet Meclisi Vakfı. p. 441. ISBN 9789757291152. YORGAKI EFENDI Yorgaki Efendi, 1856'da Niğde'de dünyaya gelmiştir. Kurtoğlu'nun oğludur. Rum mektebini bitirmiştir. Liva idare meclisi üyesi iken, 25 Kasım 1908'de 38 oy alarak Niğde'den mebus seçilmiştir
  112. ^ Ένωσις Σμυρναίων. "Καθαίρεσαν από τις οδοσημάνσεις το όνομα του εθνομάρτυρα Νικολάου Τσουρουκτσόγλου και δεν το αποκατέστησαν μέχρι σήμερα" (PDF). The Organization of the Association of Smyrneans. Retrieved Sep 12, 2015.
  113. ^ Henōsis Smyrnaiōn., Henōsis Smyrnaiōn (1964). Mikrasiatika chronika, Volumes 11–12. Tmematos Mikrasiatikon Meleton tēs Henōseos Smyrnaiōn. p. 94. OCLC 6939449. Χουδαβερδόγλους – Θεόδοτος Σοφοκλής ( 1872 · 1956 ). Γεννήθηκε στή Χαλκηδόνα Κωνσταντινουπόλεως άπό γονείς καταγόμενους άπό τά Τύανα της Καππαδοκίας. " Εγραψε: Βιβλία και άρθρα και μελέτες αναφερόμενες σέ θέματα στενογραφίας, Ιστορικών ερευνών, εκδόσεως Βίων Αγίων κ.λ.π.
  114. ^ Werkgroep Coupure, Werkgroep Coupure (2009). De Coupure in Gent. Scheiding en verbinding. Academia Press. p. 304. ISBN 9789038213231. Leonidas-Kestekidès (°1882 Nikede, met Griekse nationaliteit…(Translated: Leonidas Kestekides (° 1882 Nigde of Greek nationality
  115. ^ Boinodiris, Stavros (2010). Andros Odyssey: Liberation: (1900–1940). iUniverse. p. 22. ISBN 9781440193859. Prodromos Athanasiades-Bodosakis was born in Bohr, Cappadocia. After the exchange ofpopulations he became a Greek industrialist who in 1934 took over Pyrkal, an armament company and one of the oldest defense industries.
  116. ^ Rōmanou, Kaitē (2009). Serbian and Greek Art Music: A Patch to Western Music History. Intellect Books. p. 152. ISBN 9781841502786. Petros Petrides was born in Nigde, Kappadokia, in 1892 and died in Kifissia (Attica) in 1977. A man of vast knowledge on various fields of science and art, who is rightfully placed among the most cultivated and educated Greek composers of the first half of the 20th century;
  117. ^ Young, Jeff (2001). Kazan: the master director discusses his films : interviews with Elia Kazan. Newmarket Press. p. 9. ISBN 978-1-55704-446-4. He was born on September 7, 1909 to Greek parents living in Istanbul. His father was Yiorgos Kazanjioglou, had fled Kayseri, a small village in Anatolia where for five hundred years the Turks had oppressed and brutalized the Armenian and Greek minorities who had lived there even longer.

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